Sweden, Holland, and England followed in France’s footsteps and began diplomatic relations
with Haiti. Not all Haitians, however, were enthusiastic about the treaty, and many of their
reservations at the time anticipated the negative consequences which would later be presented by
some historians. Twentieth-century Haitian diplomat and essayist Dantès Bellegarde, for
example, reports that many officers in Boyer’s presidential guard viewed the move as shameful.
(^58) Not only were Haitians paying for what they had already achieved militarily, but such an
agreement would only reinforce economic and political ties to France. Bellegarde also suggests
that a treaty favorable to France may have angered American officials, being the pretext to the
U.S barring Haiti’s participation in the Panama Congress of 1826 (the hemisphere’s first region-
wide conference of independent states) and its refusal to recognize Haiti until as late as 1862.
This is of course in addition to the commonly cited reason for U.S. refusal to recognize Haiti
which had to do with the existence of American slavery on its own soil. Several anonymous
entries in L’Union in 1838 and 1839, attesting to the varying opinions on the subject and
including all the specific problems mentioned, also put forth the theory that the treaties were not
negotiated at all but forced by the presence of French military squadrons in Haitian waters.
Moreover, it appears that an agreement with France did not completely end Haiti’s isolation.
Some articles lament the possibility that commercial advantages for France, which were also part
of the 1838 treaty, may have sacrificed meaningful commercial relationships with other nations.
Other articles remind readers that Haiti continued to be surrounded by English, Spanish, and
French colonies with which Haiti was prohibited direct contact, limiting inter-island trade.
Although Haiti ruled over Santo Domingo in the east, Haitian ambitions to exert its influence
(^58) Dantès Bellegarde, La nation haïtienne (Paris: J. de Gigord, Editeur, 1938) 107.