The Dictionary of Human Geography

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from the interactions. A classic example is the

highly organized termite hill that emerges out

of the interaction of countless highly special-

ized individual termite activities. Such proper-

ties of ‘self-organization’ and ‘emergence’ are

central to aggregate complexity.

Several different attempts have been made

to develop and apply the mathematical theory

to urban and regional systems, such as Allen

(1997) and Portugali (2000). One difficulty is

defining the objects within the system and its

boundaries. Reviews of these issues and their

relevance for human geography may be found

in Manson (2001) and O’Sullivan (2004).

Wilson (2000) takes a pragmatic approach,

using complexity theory as a framework within

which to link various urban sub-models, argu-

ing that such linkage is vital to understand

urban structure; however, this cannot be done

in analytical terms, but only through computer

simulation and sensitivity analysis.

Complexity theory has also been adopted

by cultural geographers (seecultural geog-

raphy) as an analogical and metaphorical

tool: as the ‘cultural turn’ emphasized the

importance ofdifference, contingency and

context, so the various concepts,modelsand

terms within mathematical complexity theory

provided useful language andmetaphorswith

which to examine space and society. Within

human geography, this use of complexity

theory outnumbers the mathematical applica-

tions. A well-developed example is provided

by Urry’s study of ‘global complexity’ (Urry,

2003), in which complexity is used to link

together local and global, the emergence of

global ‘order’ from regional ‘disorder’, the role

of feedbacks and path dependence in how

regions engage with global society, and the

challenge for how social theory is constructed.

Thrift (1999b) gives a wide-ranging survey of

the take-up of the complexity metaphor in

both business and the social sciences. lwh

Suggested reading

Manson(2001);O’Sullivan(2004);Thrift(1999b).

confirmatory data analysis Quantitative

statistical procedures used to evaluatehypoth-

eses, usually involving the use ofsignificance

tests(cf.exploratory data analysis). rjj

conflict At its most general, ‘conflict’ can

mean anything from a personal disagreement

between two people to a world war. It is now

widely understood that conflict is part of the

human condition, although only some of it

results in overtviolenceor combat. Conflict

theory in sociology emphasizes struggles over

resourcesand the formation of groups and

social cleavages that may lead to organized

conflict. Coercion, resistance, revolt and

political violence within states, and warfare

between states, are dynamic processes in

which escalation, violence, conflict resolution

and peace-making are all vitally important.

In political science and economics, conflict

is sometimes discussed in terms of game

theoryand strategic calculation, an approach

that has not been frequently invoked by

geographers.

Themes of conflict run through numerous

facets of contemporary enquiry in human

geography, even though they are often not

theorized as such. Marxist approaches empha-

size the importance of structural conflict

between classes and especially in cities under

capitalism, where the geography ofclass

struggle is literally built into the urban struc-

ture (seemarxism). More recently, feminist

analyses have investigated numerous

conflicts generated by patriarchal structures

and the strategies of resistance used by

women (Staeheli, Kofman and Peake, 2004:

see alsofeminism;patriarchy).migration

brings peoples and cultures into conflict as

newcomers and established populations

negotiate coexistence, frequently in situations

of considerable economic change and against

a backdrop of class and gender struggles.

Identity conflicts are part of the urban

mosaic in most metropolitan centres, where

diasporic populations (see diaspora) are

now the subject of numerous geographical

analyses inspired by post-colonialism

(Jacobs, 1996).

Classicgeopoliticsfocused on the geog-

raphy of war and international rivalry, a topic

that has undergone a revival of interest since

the 1980s. Most recently, conflict is at the

heart of a series of geographical analyses of

matters ofwarand peace, whereterritory,

identity, national independence,empireand

violence have all come under scrutiny in the

aftermath of the events of 11 September 2001

and the launch of the ‘global war on terror’

by the Bush administration in the USA (see

terrorism). Here, conflict is discussed at the

largest scales as matters of clashes between

civilizationsand cultures, butcritical geo-

politics also reveals the multiple ways in

which these struggles are socially constructed

and reach into the lives of ordinary people

(Gregory, 2004b). These terms are heavily

laden with both implicit and explicit geo-

graphical thinking, a matter that has gained

Gregory / The Dictionary of Human Geography 9781405132879_4_C Final Proof page 106 31.3.2009 9:45pm

CONFIRMATORY DATA ANALYSIS