The Dictionary of Human Geography

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2002; Featherstone, 2003; Mertes, 2004).

They are dynamic, negotiated ‘convergence

spaces’ of multiplicity and difference, con-

structed out of a complexity of interrelations

and interactions across all spatial scales

(Routledge, 1998).

Grassroots globalization networks have

been manifested in ‘global days of action’,

which have consisted of demonstrations and

direct actions against targets that symbolize

neo-liberal power, such as the G8 (e.g. pro-

tests in Genoa, Italy, in 2001 and Gleneagles,

Scotland, in 2005), theworld trade organ-

ization(protests in Seattle, USA, in 1999,

Cancun, Mexico, in 2003 and Hong Kong in

2005) and the World Bank and the IMF (e.g.

protests in Prague, Czech Republic, in 2000

and Washington, USA, in 2002 and 2005).

Such protests have been characterized by

a convergence of interests and concerns in

the particular place of protest, and solidarity

protests that have occurred in cities across

the globe at the same time. The symbolic

force generated by protests in such places has

contributed to further mobilizations and the

creation of common ground amongst activists.

Another important manifestation has been

the establishment in 2001 of theworld social

forum(wsfm) – an annual convergence of

NGOs, trades unions, social movements and

other resistance networks in Porto Alegre,

Brazil (2001–3), and subsequently in Mumbai,

India (2004). The WSF attempts to engender

a process of dialogue and reflection, and

the transnational exchange of experiences,

ideas, strategies and information concerning

grassroots globalization. The WSF (which

attracted tens of thousands of participants in

2003) has decentralized into regional and the-

matic forums that are being held in various

parts of the world, such as the European

Social Forum in Florence, Italy (2002), the

Asian Social Forum in Hyderabad, India

(2003), and the Thematic Forum on Drugs,

Human Rights and Democracy in Cartagena,

Colombia (2003) (Sen, Anand, Escobar and

Waterman, 2004).

Mary Kaldor (2003) posits that such devel-

opments represent the emergence of a ‘global

civil society’ that includes at least six differ-

ent types of political actor that are ‘anti-

globalization’ in outlook: more traditional

social movements such as trades unions;

more contemporary social movements such

as women’s and environmental movements;

NGOs such as Amnesty International; trans-

national civic networks such as the Inter-

national Rivers Network; ‘new’ nationalist

and fundamentalist movements such as Al

Qaeda; and the anti-capitalist movement.

Meanwhile, Amory Starr (2000) identifies at

least three different strategic foci within the

‘anti-globalization movement’: (i)Contestation

and Reform, which involves social movements

and organizations that seek to impose regula-

tory limitations on corporations and or gov-

ernments, or force them to self-regulate,

mobilizing existing formal democratic chan-

nels of protest (e.g. Human Rights Watch

and the Fair Trade network); (ii)Globalization

from Below, whereby various social movements

and organizations form global alliances

around such issues as environmental degrad-

ation, the abuse ofhuman rightsand labour

standards, to make corporations and govern-

ments accountable to people instead of elites

(e.g. theZapatistas, labour unions or the WSF);

and (iii)De-linking, Relocalization and Sover-

eignty, whereby varied initiatives articulate the

pleasures, productivities and rights of localities

and attempt to de-link local economies from

corporate-controlled national and international

economies (e.g. permaculture initiatives, com-

munity currency, community credit organiza-

tions, sovereignty movements – especially those

of indigenous peoples – and various religious

nationalisms; see also Hines, 2000).

Despite such diversity, certain key areas

of agreement have emerged, such as demands

for (i) the cancellation of foreign debt in the

developing world (which amounted to US

$3,000 billion in 1999); (ii) the introduction

of a tax on international currency transactions,

and controls on capital flows; (iii) the reduction

in people’s working hours and an end to child

labour; (iv) the defence of public services; (v)

progressive taxation to finance public services

and redistribute wealth and income; (vi) the

international adoption of enforceable targets

for greenhouse emissions and large-scale in-

vestment in renewable energy; (vii) policies

that ensure land, water and food sovereignty

forpeasantand indigenous people; and (viii)

the defence of civil liberties (Callinicos, 2003;

Fisher and Ponniah, 2003). At the root of such

demands is the perceived necessity to reclaim

and protect commonresourcesandrights

seen as directly under threat of erasure or ap-

propriation by the processes and agents of neo-

liberal globalization. pr

anti-humanism A critique ofhumanism

that seeks to displace the human subject as

the centre of philosophical and social enquiry.

Knowledge and understanding, morality and

ethics, and interpretation are all challenged by

Gregory / The Dictionary of Human Geography 9781405132879_4_A Final Proof page 32 31.3.2009 9:44pm

ANTI-HUMANISM