The Dictionary of Human Geography

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Politics, which had led the revival of political

geography, was complemented by attention to

the politics of representation and governance,

or politics with a small ‘p’ (Flint, 2003a). The

philosophies of Michel Foucault and Pierre

Bourdieu, amongst others, challenged the

structuralism and economism of some versions

of Marxist theory, and geographers used these

works to focus upon topics ofgovernance

(Hannah, 2000) and social constructions of

space (Mohan and Mohan, 2002). Feminist

scholars challenged the binary nature of exist-

ing theories and analyses (Staeheli, Kofman

and Peake, 2004). In turn, the discipline saw

an explosion of journals (Space and Polity,

Geopolitics,Society and Space) as well as a surge

in the publication of textbooks as political geog-

raphy classes became more common in univer-

sities (Flint and Taylor, 2007 [1985]; Jones,

Jones and Woods, 2004).

A coherent political geography played a key

role in establishing the modern discipline of

geography. However, the price of a dubious

theoretical foundation was application in the

name of imperialism andwar. Contemporary

political geography is eclectic and constantly

engaging in self-critique challenging the pri-

oritization of particular theories and social

groups, and identifying key actors beyond the

state. The result is a number of creative ten-

sions. Within the sub-discipline, competing

theoretical perspectives vie for attention.

Also, as the ‘war on terror’ has become a dom-

inant context (seeterrorism), the issue of

relevancehas reappeared; producing a ten-

sion between social scientists critical of foreign

policy, on the one hand, and administrators

and politicians looking for geography to pro-

vide the tools and analysis to facilitate coun-

ter-terrorism. cf

Suggested reading

Agnew (2002); Cox and Low (2003); Flint

(1999); Painter (1995); Staeheli, Kofman and

Peake (2004); Flint and Taylor (2007 [1999]).

pollution Substances released into an envir-

onment that cause harm to living organisms or

built structures (e.g. roads, buildings). The

substances may be human-made or natural

(seeenvironmental hazard;hazard). Harm

occurs when the receiving environment cannot

easily assimilate the type or quantity of sub-

stance released.

The effects of pollution range from aesthetic

nuisance through to economic loss,health

damage, death and long-term environmental

degradation. The release of pollution may be

sudden, or it may involve a slow accumulation

of substances, such as the concentration of

heavy metals, herbicides and pesticides in

foodchains. The impacts of pollution may

also be gradual or sudden. The impact may

be short-lived or exist for a long time. It may

be local, widely dispersed or far from the

source of pollution (seeacid rain). Pollution

may be described by its medium (e.g. air or

water pollution), its character (e.g. noise pol-

lution andacid rain) or its source (e.g. indus-

trial pollution).

Pollution is both physical and socially con-

structed (see social construction).

Bickerstaff and Walker (2002) demonstrate

the moral geography of pollution, risk,

responsibility and blame in an English city.

Pollution may be regarded by some people as

an ‘accident’, or understood by others as the

deliberate and inevitable consequences of pro-

duction processes. Sections of theenviron-

mental movementhave strongly criticized

production processes that generate pollution.

Increasingly, efforts are being made to ‘close

the circle’ by using former wastes from pro-

cesses as inputs into new production pro-

cesses, in what is known as ‘industrial

ecology’. Regulations are enforced to prevent

the deliberate emission of pollution that is

considered unacceptable. Sometimes the pol-

lutant must be treated to a standard before it is

emitted. The setting of standards and their

enforcement vary throughout the world

because the receiving environments are differ-

ent, and partly because of desires to maintain

economic growth.

Concern about pollution rose dramatically

after more than 4,000 people died in a photo-

chemical smog in London in December 1952,

and following the publication ofSilent spring

by Rachel Carson in 1962. Kates (1995)

observed that the sharp decrease in pollution

after the UK’s Clean Air Act of 1956 was part

of a longer trend to improved air quality,

resulting from the displacement of coal as a

source ofenergy. Rachel Carson identified

the dangers of a new pollutant, the insecticide

DDT (Carson, 1962). It was the forerunner

for concerns about many human-produced

substances, ranging from pesticides through

to nuclear industry waste. Continental- and

global-scale pollutants such CFC emissions,

acid rainand pollutants that contribute to

global warminghave caused most concern

for governments, the environmental move-

ment and citizens in developed countries.

Pollution is an important aspect ofenvir-

onmental justicein the USA (see Pastor,

Gregory / The Dictionary of Human Geography 9781405132879_4_P Final Proof page 551 1.4.2009 3:20pm

POLLUTION