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Suggested reading
Barnes (2008a); Bernstein (1992a); Menand
(2001).prediction The construction of an estimated
or expected value for an observation being
studied, where the observation might be for a
place, region, individual or time-period. The
estimate or prediction may be generated by a
statistical model (e.g.regression), a math-
ematical model (e.g. anentropy-maximizing
model) or a more informalsimulationpro-
cess. The term ‘predicted value’ is usually
employed for the ‘fitted’ or estimated values
for observations within the data set being cali-
brated or modelled, and the out-of-sample
extrapolation is termed theforecast. lwhpre-industrial city All cities prior to the
industrial revolution, plus those in non-
industrialized regions today. The term reflects
the theory, initially advocated by Gideon
Sjoberg (1960; seesjoberg model), that all
pre-industrial cities, regardless of their time,
place or cultural backdrop, share similar
reasons for existence, social hierarchies and
internal spatial structures. The term is now
rarely used, as few researchers believe that
the variety of urban forms created by pre-
industrial and non-industrialized societies
have enough in common to be considered as
variations of a single category. dhpreservation The protection, maintenance
and care of relict features of the built environ-
ment, including historic buildings, archaeo-
logical sites and individual human artefacts
(e.g. the Colosseum in Rome). Preservationists
complement the work of conservationists, who
aim to protect specific ‘natural’landscapesor
features ofthe biophysical environment (e.g. the
Grand Canyon) (cf.conservation). Agencies
such as the National Trust in the UK are
awarded statutory powers to preserve houses
and gardens of particular historical significance
(seeheritage). This may involve the extensive
restoration of buildings to bring them back to
their original condition or their revival through
the reproduction of past features (e.g. gardens).
Human geographers have been concerned both
with the practices involved in preservation pro-
jects and with the types of landscape imagery,
iconographyand interpretation provided in
preserved landscapes (e.g. Ashworth and
Tunbridge, 2004). As the example of the
Colosseum suggests, however, ‘preservation’
has a complex and often contentiously imagina-
tive relationship with restoration (see Hopkinsand Beard, 2005, chs. 1 and 6; and, more gener-
ally, Lowenthal, 1985). Relict features typically
have multiple, sedimented histories inscribed in
and on them: they are not the product of a single
historical moment. It was for this reason that
the French architect Viollet le-Duc (1814–79)
argued that restoration should restore a build-
ing to an idealized state of completion, per-
fection ‘that may never have actually existed
at any given time’: which is why, in turn,
his ‘restorations’ (e.g. of the French city of
Carcassonne) proved so controversial in the
past and in the present. nj/dgSuggested reading
Ashworth and Tunbridge (2004); Lowenthal
(1985, ch. 7).pricing policies The arrangements whereby
the prices at whichcommoditiesare offered to
consumers are determined. In spatial eco-
nomic analysis, the important distinguishing
feature of pricing policies is the extent to
which price varies with distance from the ori-
gin or source of the commodity. There are two
major alternative policies. The first is known
as thef.o.b.(free on board) price system, under
which there is a basic price at origin and the
consumer pays thetransport costinvolved
in getting the commodity to the point of pur-
chase. The second is thec.i.f.(cost, insurance,
freight) price system, under which the produ-
cer adds insurance and shipping cost to the
production cost and offers the commodity at
a uniform delivered price irrespective of dis-
tance from origin. The distinction between
these two policies is important, for commod-
ities sold c.i.f. should have no bearing on loca-
tionalcomparative advantagefor productive
activities requiring them as inputs; similarly,
distance from origin should not affect level of
demand for goods offered on a c.i.f. basis
(other things being equal). There is an increas-
ing tendency for commodities to be sold at a
uniform delivered price.
Various alternative pricing policies may be
implemented. An f.o.b. system does not
necessarily have minor incremental increases
in price for small increases in distance; more
often, the prevailing freight rateson which
delivered price is based will be constant over
broad zones. There may be forms of spatial
price discrimination, under which customers
in some areas are charged a high price (per-
haps because the supplier has a local monop-
oly) so as to subsidize the price charged in a
more competitive market elsewhere. A well-
known variant is thebasing point price policy,Gregory / The Dictionary of Human Geography 9781405132879_4_P Final Proof page 579 1.4.2009 3:20pmPRICING POLICIES