The Dictionary of Human Geography

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have contributed to interdisciplinary

debates about the ‘queer tourism’ indus-

try and the differential positionings of

racial, sexual, gendered and national

subjects (Puar, 2002).

(5) Geographies of heterosexualities. These are

most evident in historical and contempor-

ary work onprostitutionthat has looked

at the role of moral representations, social

discoursesand practices in regulating sex

work (Hubbard, 1999). Geographical

writing based on psychoanalytic theory

has drawn on accounts of psychosexual

development, sexual differences and de-

sire, while also challenging the heterosex-

ism evident in the writing of authors such

as Lacan (seehomophobia and hetero-

sexism). There is growing interest in

heterosexuality as an institution through

which links between thebody, thehome

and the public sphere are produced and

negotiated (Little and Leyshon, 2003;

Robinson, Hockey and Meah, 2004;

see alsoheteronormativity).

(6) Critiques of the discipline. Geographers

working on sexuality share many of the

concerns of feminist geographers about

the masculinist, heteronormative and

disembodied heritage of the discipline,

and about the operation of power within

the academy. gv

Suggested reading

Bell and Valentine (1995); Binnie (2004); Brown

(2000).

shadow state A para-state apparatuscom-

prising voluntary, non-profit organizations pro-

viding a host of goods andservices. Although

the form of the shadow state varies over time

and between countries, it is commonly regu-

lated and subsidized by public funds, simultan-

eously creating the ability to provide services

whilecontrollingpoliticalactivism. Neo-liberal

policies (seeneo-liberalism) and decentraliza-

tion of thestatehave increased the role of the

shadow state in social service delivery and

communitydevelopment; provoking questions

about the implication of unequal access to the

shadow state for citizenship (Lake and

Newman, 2002),governanceandsocial just-

ice(DeVerteuil, Lee, and Wolch, 2002). cf

Suggested reading

Wolch (1990).

sharecropping A form of land tenure in

which the landowners’ returns take the form

of a share of the farmers’ produce rather than a

cash or farmrent. Sharecropping is also

known by the French asme ́tayage(Wells,

1984). Sharecropping arrangements involve

short-term contracts for the annual cycle of

production of a specific crop in which crop

raising is contracted out to labouringhouse-

holds, individuals or work gangs, who thereby

take on the large part of economic risks of

production. These arrangements have been

widely assumed to belong to the agricultural

past and interpreted asfeudalor pre-capital-

ist in nature (e.g. Marx, 1964), but they

remain significant in contemporary agricul-

ture, even in modern agriculture in, for

example, the USA. Sharecropping takes many

forms in different contexts, but all tend to be

associated with highly concentrated patterns

of landownership and exploitive labour rela-

tions; for example, in the cotton-growing

South of the USA between white landowners

and black farmers (Mann, 1984b), or between

landowners and Mexican migrant workers

in California’s strawberry industry (Wells,

1996). mw

shift-share model A technique for describ-

ing the relative importance of different

components of growth/decline in a regional

economy, widely used inregional science.

Growth may be due to aregionhaving a high

concentration of industries that are growing

nationally, for example; because of locational

shifts within certain industries towards that

region; or because of differential regional

trends within and across industries. Shift-

share analysis splits a region’s growth (in

employment, for example), relative to the

national norm, into: (a) a proportionality

shift, that proportion of the growth (decline)

associated with the concentration of relatively

fast(slow)-growing industrial sectors there;

and (b)a differential shift, that proportion ref-

lecting local trends that deviate from the

national. rj

Suggested reading

Armstrong and Taylor (1978).

shifting cultivation Minimally, shifting cul-

tivation is an agricultural system characterized

by a rotation of fields rather than of crops, by

discontinuous cropping in which periods of

fallowing are typically longer than periods

of cropping, and by the clearing of fields

(usually called swiddens) through the use of

slash-and-burn techniques. Known by a var-

iety of terms (including field-forest rotation,

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SHIFTING CULTIVATION