The Dictionary of Human Geography

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Theories of subjectivity have led geograph-

ers to rethinkepistemology,methodology,

theory and representational strategy. Calls for

reflexivity reflect the understanding that

knowledge is a social construct contingent on

social location: theories of the unconscious

indicate the limits of self-reflexivity and the

limits of knowledge (Rose, 1997b). Theories

of mobile, fragmented identities have encour-

aged different mapping and writing strategies

(Massey, 1997; Pred, 1997). Emphasis on

affectand non-cognitive aspects of experi-

ence within non-representational styles of

thinking have led to many suggestions for the-

oretical and methodological innovation

(Thrift, 2000a; see alsoqualitative methods).

Her engagement with psychotherapy has led

Bondi (1999) to read differently: she draws

the distinction between intertextual and experi-

ential reading practices. gp

Suggested reading

Culler (1997); Pile and Thrift (1995); Probyn

(2003).

subsidiarity The principle that authority

should be exercised at the most local level

consistent with effectiveness, and that higher-

level institutions should have only ‘subsidiary’

functions. The idea originated in Catholic

social teaching and became a central concept

in theories offederalism. In European Union

law and politics, it refers to the division of

powers between the EU, member states, and

regional and local authorities in a system of

multi-level governance. Federalists argue

that subsidiarity implies increaseddevolution

to regional bodies. In EU law, however, it

mainly protects the rights of national govern-

mentsvis-a`-visthe EU’s supranational institu-

tions. jp

Suggested reading

Jordan (2000).

subsistence agriculture A form of organiz-

ing food production such that a group (house-

hold, village, society) securesfoodsufficient

for its own reproduction over time (seesocial

reproduction). Subsistence production,

which includes not only crop production but

also hunting, fishing andpastoralism, is typ-

ically understood to be based on the direct

exploitation of the environment, as opposed

to manufacture (Neitschmann, 1973).

Subsistence also suggests production for use,

as opposed to forexchange, although subsist-

ence groups might share food and other

resources for ritual, ceremonial or social reci-

procity purposes. Subsistence agriculture can

thereby be seen as a form of culturaladapta-

tionby which social groups adapt to and

regulateecosystemsof which they are apart

(see cultural ecology). Inmarxist eco-

nomics, subsistence production without mar-

ket involvement of any sort is referred to as

primitive economy, the earliest stage of eco-

nomic development: household subsistence

producers with some degree of production

for sale, or who purchase some goods in mar-

kets are generally referred to aspeasants.

Because production of surpluses and/or partial

commoditization is often associated with the

over-exploitation of bothnatureand direct

producers (Blaikie, 1985) (see political

ecology), subsistence societies appear to be

more egalitarian in their social relations, des-

pite the fact that their organization might

be highly patriarchal. Although subsistence

production is rare in the modern world, it

allows for the possibility of substantive group

autonomy from bothstateandmarket. For

that reason, it is occasionally conjured up as

a utopian ideal among communards, or

invoked as something that ought to be pro-

tected in traditional societies (e.g. Norbert-

Hodge, 1991). jgu

substitutionism The products of agricul-

ture present special obstacles and barriers for

industrial production.food, with its necessary

links tohealth, well-being, sociability and

culture, represents impediments to the sim-

ple notion of replacement of foodstuffs by

industrial products (appropriationism). But the

growth and maturity of the food industry has

witnessed a discontinuous but permanent pro-

cess to achieve the industrial production of

food. Goodman, Sorj and Wilkinson (1987,

p. 2) refer to the rising proportion ofvalue-

addedattributable to industrial production in

the food system and the gradual replacements

of agricultural by non-agricultural products

(e.g. of sugar derived from sugar cane, by

synthetic sugars) as the twin characteristics of

what they call substitutionism. (See also

agrarian question;agro-food system.)mw

Suggested reading

Walker (2005).

suburb/anization Suburbanization is a pro-

cess whereby people, housing, industry, com-

merce, and retailing spread out beyond

traditional urban areas, forming dispersed

landscapesthat are still connected tocities

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SUBURB/ANIZATION