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goals,they are likely to become dissatisfied
with life and develop despair.This often
leads to a sense of hopelessness and
depression.

Levinson’s Four Eras

Working from Erickson’s theories,

Daniel Levinson later identified four life

stages,known asLevinson’seras,which

Marriage and Family Life: The Middle and LateYears

Figure 8.1

Erickson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development

Source:Zanden 1977,112–113.

Developmental

Stage

Psychosocial

Crisis

Predominant Social

Setting

Favorable

Outcome

Infancy Trust vs.Mistrust Family Development of

trust in self,parents,

and the world

Early Childhood Autonomy vs.Shame Family Development of

autonomy without a

loss of self-esteem

Ages 4–5 Initiative vs.Guilt Family Learns direction and

purpose in activities

Age 6 to onset of

puberty

Industry vs.Inferiority Neighborhood,

school

Acquisition of sense of

mastery and

competence

Adolescence Identity vs.Role

Confusion

Peer groups Development of an

ego identity—a

coherent sense of self

YoungAdulthood to

age 40

Intimacy vs.Isolation Partners in friendship

and intimacy

Ability to work toward

specific career;

involvement in an

extended intimate

relationship

Ages 40–65 Generativity vs.

Stagnation

New family and work

environment

Developmentof

concernforthose

outsideimmediate

family:future

generationsandsociety

OldAge

Ages 65 and over

Integrity vs.Despair Retirement and

impending death

Sense of satisfaction in

looking back

on life