Chapter 8
overlap and are broader and more
inclusive than developmental stages or
periods (Levinson et al.,1978; Levinson,
1997):
Levinson suggests that changing from
one era to another is a lengthy,
complicated process requiring a basic
change in the fabric of life.InThe Seasons
of a Man’s Life,Levinson says,“Adults
hope that life begins at 40—but the great
anxiety is that it ends there”(Levinson et
al.,1978).Each era includes transitions,
some of which extend through all three
stages or eras.These transitions and how
they change,based on the relevant stage or
era,are the focus of this chapter’s
examination.
Criticism of Erickson and Levinson
Criticism of Erickson’s and Levinson’s
developmental theories falls into two
broad groups.The first group of criticisms
revolves around its intrinsic weakness: it
doesn’t explain how a developmental crisis
is resolved; some of the stages,particularly
those in adulthood,have not been
empirically demonstrated; what
constitutes transition from one stage to
the next is not clearly explained; and there
is no explanation of how societal
influences affect development (P.Miller,
1989,2001).
A second group of criticisms focuses
on the nature of the model.Feminist
critics point out the theories are from a
European male perspective,with emphasis
on the individual and on achievement of
autonomy.Both Erickson’s and Levinson’s
theories view the male as the model for
normal development.
Those who criticize these theories
suggest that for women,connectedness is
central to development,that it is virtually
ignored in male-dominated theories,and
that autonomy may be more characteristic
of men’s development than women’s
personality development (Gilligan,1982,
1991,2008; Hyde,1991; Jordan et al.,
1991; J.Miller,1986; Sneed et al.,2006).
The self-in-relation model or theory
(Jordan et al.,1991) is a feminist model of
psychological development which asserts
the primary motivation for women
throughout life is to establish a basic sense
of connection to others.
The self-in-relation theory stresses the
connection to others as essential for
female identity and fundamental to their
self-concept.It involves an important shift
in the emphasis from separation to
connection as the basis for self-experience- First era: childhood and adolescence,
ages 0–22 - Second era: early adulthood,ages
17–45 - Third era: middle adulthood,ages
40–65 - Fourth era: late adulthood,ages 60+