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Chapter 2

children began to move farther from their

parents’homes.

Ironically,because of the nation’s rapid

material and geographic growth,the idea

of family took on renewed significance as

arefugeorsanctuaryfromthematerialistic

world.For Christians,the family also

became the symbol of higher moral and

spiritual values.

An Emphasis on Commerce.The

economictransformationsof theIndustrial

Revolution brought about further changes

in men’sandwomen’sroles.AsAmericans

began tofavor city life,moremen hadto

leavehometowork in officesandfactories.

Thisbrought about theemergenceof two

patternsof family life—thenewurban

workingclassanda return toan older

pattern,theproduction family (Mintz,

2007b).Theincreasein commercein the

early part of thecentury causeda demand

for shopkeepersandboth skilledand

unskilledlaborers.Thisledtotheriseof

theurban working-classfamily with its

emphasison acooperativefamily

economy.

Inacooperativefamily

economy,thefamilyitself

becameacommodity,calleda

commodifiedfamily.Wives

andchildrenwereexpectedto

contributeaboutonethirdof

thefamily’stotalincome.In

thepoorestfamilies,and

particularlyamongnewer

immigrants,childrenoften

workedinfactoriesorsold

newspapersandtrinketson

thestreets.Schoolwasa

luxuryforthesechildren

becausethechild’sincomewasneededto

helpsupportthefamily.Thus,eventhough

publicschoolsweremorewidelyavailable,

illiteracyratesactuallyroseduringtheearly

stagesoftheIndustrialRevolution.Older

childrenoftendelayedmarriagesothey

couldcontinuecontributingtothefamily’s

income.

Toward the latter part of the century,

wages for manual labor were so low wives

and children frequently had to work just

to maintain a minimum standard of

living.Horace Greeley,editor ofThe New

York Tribune,estimated a family of five

required $10.37 per week to maintain a

minimal existence.At that time,a textile

operator earned $6.50 per week and an

Toward the latter part of the century, wages for manual labor were so low that

wives and children frequently had to work just to maintain a minimum standard

of living. Blacksmiths and machinists were the only laborers

able to earn enough to support a family of five.

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