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up a semi-tone (half-step) or tone (full step). This is discussed in section 10.
Reharmonizing is a delightful way of adding interest to a final chorus. This means the melody stays the same (or
nearly the same) but the underlying chords are changed. This can be very expressive. In 'Don't Dream It's Over', the
first two choruses use a IV V I VI sequence (F G C Am), but the third chorus is II III I VI (Dm Em C Am). The first
two major chords, F and G, have turned into their relative minors. This adds a sudden, tragic note that heightens the
emotional effect. (Wisely, they do it only once.) In the consciously Beatlesque 'This Year's Model', we have the line
"All this but no surprises for this year's girl" that is harmonized IV V I (F G C). In the last choruses, it is
reharmonized IV V I VI (F G C Am), IV V III VI (F G Em Am) and finally IV V I again. The appearance of the
minor chords adds an exquisite emotional flourish that suggests the speaker has more sympathy with the beleaguered
model than the song has let on.
The Outro or Coda
All good things, even great 45s, have an ending. Sad but true.
After the last chorus, you have to find a way to finish. The time-honoured pop tradition is to fade out on repetitions
of the chorus. This is effective, especially if you want to leave an impression of the music going on forever – a
profound metaphysical idea, that. Perhaps the chorus of 'God Only Knows' eternally echoes in the mind of God
(along with everything else, of course!). Using a fade does mean, however, that if you perform the song live you'll
have to think of an ending later.
Occasionally songs fade out and then come back. 'In Every Dream Home A Heartache' fades out on a solo and then,
after a few seconds of silence, returns in a blizzard of phasing. This was obviously not designed for radio, as it is
liable to catch the DJ in the middle of the next announcement. One of my favourite endings is the "tape-cut". Love's
'A House Is Not A Motel' has a coda consisting of two duelling electric guitars playing solos that are unrelated to
each other. The song abruptly ceases as if the tape had vanished. (Whoever faded this out on the CD pressing
deserves to be shot).
Some codas merely reprise the chorus instrumentally, with vocal ad libs or another solo, or have another refrain over
the music for the chorus, or use the intro sequence. Many songs have a refrain so you can join in. Extended
instrumental codas can create an engaging mood of their own, as with 'More Than This', 'Step Into My World', 'Hotel
California', 'Freebird', 'Tunnel Of Love' and 'Thunder Road'.
The Smiths' 'Panic' reaches its coda at a mere 1:42, with a satirical use of kids' voices – satirical because kids are so
often used on ghastly pop records. In 'Panic' the kids get their revenge with the gleeful refrain of "Hang the DJ."
Alice Cooper's 'Department of Youth' ends with an amusing call-and-response routine in which he asks, "Who's got
the power?" and they answer, "We do!" Eventually he adds, "And who gave it to you?" to which they reply, "Donny
Osmond.'' "Whaaat!" screams the appalled and betrayed Alice.
A few hit records have had codas longer than the main part of the song. In 'Hey Jude', the "la la" coda goes on for
several minutes. Another No. 1 single with a long coda was T.Rex's 'Hot Love', where the verse was used for another
"la la" coda. The full-length version of 'Layla' has a long instrumental coda that introduces new melodic ideas; it was
edited out from the single.
If a coda does not fade, the last chord is usually the key chord: major for a happy ending, minor for a sad one. The
precise form of the last chord I will contribute to the effect – the dom7 is hard, the maj7 soft, the sus2 empty, the
sus4 tense, the maj6 slightly jazzy. The dominant chord is a viable alternative that