Mood Congruence 69processing and rely more on their stored knowledge about the
world in order to make sense of these stimuli. Affectively
primed associations should thus have a greater chance to in-
fuse the judgmental outcome.
Consistent with this reasoning, the data indicated that,
irrespective of current mood, subjects took longer to read
about odd as opposed to ordinary characters. Moreover,
while the former targets were evaluated somewhat more
positively by happy than by sad subjects, this difference was
magnified (in a mood-congruent direction) in the impressions
made of atypical targets. Subsequent research, comparing
ordinary versus odd couples rather than individuals, yielded
similar results (e.g., Forgas, 1993).
Do effects of a similar sort emerge in realistic interper-
sonal judgments? In several studies, the impact of mood
on judgments and inferences about real-life interpersonal is-
sues was investigated (Forgas, 1994). Partners in long-term,
intimate relationships revealed clear evidence of mood con-
gruence in their attributions for actual conflicts, especially
complex and serious conflicts that demand careful thought.
These experiments provide direct evidence for the process
dependence of affect infusion into social judgments and in-
ferences. Even judgments about highly familiar people are
more prone to affect infusion when a more substantive pro-
cessing strategy is used.
Recent research has also shown that individual character-
istics, such as trait anxiety, can influence processing styles
and thereby significantly moderate the influence of negative
mood on intergroup judgments (Ciarrochi & Forgas, 1999).
Low trait-anxious Whites in the United States reacted more
negatively to a threatening Black out-group when experienc-
ing negative affect. Surprisingly, high trait-anxious individu-
als showed the opposite pattern: They went out of their way
to control their negative tendencies when feeling bad, and
produced more positive judgments. Put another way, it ap-
peared that low trait-anxious people processed information
about the out-group automatically and allowed affect to in-
fluence their judgments, whereas high trait anxiety combined
with aversive mood triggered a more controlled, motivated
processing strategy designed to eliminate socially undesir-
able intergroup judgments.
Mood Congruence in Social Behaviors
In this section we discuss research that speaks to a related ques-
tion: If affect can influence thinking and judgments, can it also
influence actual social behaviors? Most interpersonal behav-
iors require some degree of substantive, generative processing
as people need to evaluate and plan their behaviors in inher-
ently complex and uncertain social situations (Heider, 1958).
To the extent that affect influences thinking and judgments,
there should also be a corresponding influence on subsequent
social behaviors. Positive affect should prime positive infor-
mation and produce more confident, friendly, and cooperative
“approach” behaviors, whereas negative affect should prime
negative memories and produce avoidant, defensive, or un-
friendly attitudes and behaviors.Mood Congruence in Responding to RequestsA recent field experiment by Forgas (1998) investigated
affective influences on responses to an impromptu request.
Folders marked “please open and consider this” were left on
several empty desks in a large university library, each folder
containing an assortment of materials (pictures as well as
narratives) that were positive or negative in emotional tone.
Students who (eventually) took a seat at these desks were
surreptitiously observed to ensure that they did indeed open
the folders and examine their contents carefully. Soon after-
wards, the students were approached by another student (in
fact, a confederate) and received an unexpected polite or im-
polite request for several sheets of paper needed to complete
an essay. Their responses were noted, and a short time later
they were asked to complete a brief questionnaire assessing
their attitudes toward the request and the requester.
The results revealed a clear mood-congruent pattern in
attitudes and in responses to the requester: Negative mood re-
sulted in a more critical, negative attitude to the request and
the requester, as well as less compliance, than did positive
mood. These effects were greater when the request was im-
polite rather than polite, presumably because impolite, un-
conventional requests are likely to require more elaborate
and substantive processing on the part of the recipient. This
explanation was supported by evidence for enhanced long-
term recall for these messages. On the other hand, more rou-
tine, polite, and conventional requests were processed less
substantively, were less influenced by mood, and were also
remembered less accurately later on. These results confirm
that affect infusion can have a significant effect on determin-
ing attitudes and behavioral responses to people encountered
in realistic everyday situations.Mood Congruence in Self-DisclosureSelf-disclosure is one of the most important communicative
tasks people undertake in everyday life, influencing the
development and maintenance of intimate relationships.
Self-disclosure is also critical to mental health and social
adjustment. Do temporary mood states influence people’s
self-disclosure strategies? Several lines of evidence suggest