Additional Member System
The concern that systems ofproportional representationcan weaken the
links ofrepresentative democracybetween voters and legislators can be
allayed by the additional member system, a version of which is used in
Germany. Effectively, two sorts of candidates are elected. There are single-
member constituencies in which candidates are elected either by a simple
plurality system (seevoting systems), or one of its modifications like the
second ballotoralternative votesystem. But in addition a number of
parliamentary seats are not allocated to constituencies. These are allotted to
parties according to the total number of votes they have received across all the
constituencies, and bring their representation nearer to a fair proportion of all
votes cast. How proportionate the system is depends on parameters such as the
number of additional seats, and how they are allotted. The German system has
equal numbers of seats of the two sorts, but a country would be free to set aside
only a small number of additional seats, and thus to modify the initial
constituency-based results only marginally. As in the example of Germany, it
is also possible to set a minimum level of support, perhaps 5%, before a party is
awarded seats. Commissions examining the idea of proportional representation
for the United Kingdom usually favour some version of the additional member
system. Probably the fairest version is to require voters to cast two votes, as in
Germany, one for the individual representative which they prefer in their
constituency, and one for theparty listthey prefer. This allows a voter to
select on both personal grounds for their constituency, and for the overall party
list which they prefer—the two votes can thus be split between parties. A
version of this system was recommended for use in the United Kingdom in the
report of the Independent Commission on the Voting System (the Jenkins
Report of 1998).
Administration
This term may be used in a number of senses and the meanings are frequently
blurred. It may refer simply to the political part of theexecutivebranch and it
is frequently so used in the USA, as in ‘the Bush administration’; this usage is
becoming more common in the United Kingdom. In some countries where a
sharper distinction is drawn between politicians and civil servants, the word
may describe thecivil serviceorbureaucracyalone; this is also common
usage in the UK. The term also relates to the process of implementing
decisions and organizing the government of a country, as in the administration
of quasi-governmental agencies, nationalized industries and local authorities.
In recent years both active politicians and political scientists have become
concerned with the problem of governmental overload and the inefficiencies
which result from an executive which has too many responsibilities. One
Additional Member System