(1993–2001), and the research focus shifted to more modest systems which
could track and destroy a few missiles launched by a terrorist organization or
‘rogue state’, and responsibility for strategic defence research was transferred
from the SDI to the newly-created Ballistic Missile Defence Organization
(BMDO). In 2001 the administration of President George W. Bush insisted
that such a system be prepared for implementation, and increased funding to
the Missile Defense Agency (MDA), as the BMDO was re-named. The Bush
presidency encountered severe international criticism, especially from Russia,
but made it clear that the USA was prepared unilaterally to abrogate the Treaty,
which it regarded as having no further international purpose or importance. A
treaty on arms reduction signed by the US and Russian presidents in May 2002
was perceived as having superseded the ABM treaty.
Anti-Clerical
An anti-clerical political outlook is one which is strongly opposed to the
churches wielding any direct political influence or power. Anti-clerical parties
or politicians have had an important role in most Western societies at one time
or another. Nowadays a clerical/anti-clericalcleavagestill exists in Italy and,
to a lesser extent, France. In France, during the period 1870–1958, important
sections of the electorate would automatically back certain political parties
because they could be relied upon to oppose any clerical influence in politics.
As the principal political voice of the Roman Catholic church, theMouve-
ment Re ́publicaine Populaire, ceased to be of influence early in theFifth
Republicthe distinction became less vital. Other electors (nowadays espe-
cially the Christian Democrats in Italy) vote as they do precisely because they
feel that churchesshouldplay a significant role in the state.
In general it has beenRoman Catholicismthat has been the focus of anti-
clerical politics, largely because it has historically been associated with con-
servative values and therefore seen as supporting upper classes. In the Dutch
party system, however, anti-clericalism applies to the general opposition to
church influence in politics, especially since the development of inter-denomi-
national political groupings (which was itself a sign of the declining influence
of the churches in politics and society in general). As the Catholic Church has
changed and, particularly in the Third World, been seen as ‘revolutionary’ and
an advocate ofliberation theology, the traditional basis for anti-clericalism
has declined. The generalsecularizationof modern society has further
reduced concern about religious influence in the state. Thus some political
parties (the German Christian Democrats, for example) have become pure
conservative parties (seeconservatism), with religious affiliation playing no
role in their support or rejection. However, religiousfundamentalismhas
become both stronger and politically more relevant since the 1970s, so there is
Anti-Clerical