the function of appointing aprime ministeror other official to head the
government. Forms of presidential government vary but in many countries,
including the USA and France, the president is elected separately from the
legislature.
In systems which are marked by aseparation of powers, such as the USA,
presidential government is sometimes seen as a constitutional distortion
because power is meant to be balanced between the various institutions. In
the USA such terms as ‘imperial presidency’ became common after the period
of theVietnam WarandWatergate. Because of concern over excessive
presidential power there was a major reassertion of congressional authority,
particularly during the administration of President Jimmy Carter. From 1981–
92, however, the US government was under the firm leadership of presidents
from theRepublican Party; although they did not always have their own
way, Congress, controlled by theDemocratic Party, was able only to limit
and block their initiatives, and not to enforce a different agenda. France, where
President Franc ̧oisMitterrandalso had to contend with a resurgent parlia-
ment for two years when the Gaullists held a majority (seecohabitation) may
be the only other genuinely presidential system in the developed democratic
world, but somecabinet governmentsystems, especially the United King-
dom’s and arguably Germany’s, give the prime minister so much individual
power that they are often accused of being ‘presidential’.
Pressure Group
Pressure groups are voluntary organizations formed to defend a particular
interest groupin a society or to promote a cause or political position. These
groups can operate in a number of different ways and seek to exert pressure at a
number of different points in the political system, but normally they do not
themselves directly seek elective office nor put forward aprogrammecover-
ing the whole range of governmental activities. The sanctions which pressure
groups have vary from thestrike, which is used by trade unions, and direct
action, frequently used by movements which feel marginal to the political
system as a whole, to the withdrawal of co-operation by citizens’ groups.
Typically the pressure applied by these groups derives more from the publicity
generated than from any direct effect of the action. (See alsocivil disobe-
dienceandnew social movements).
Primaries
The primary election is a way of allowing the electors themselves to select who
shall run for office under a particular party label. As a device it became
extremely popular in the USA in the early years of the 20th century, when
Primaries