Islam, Modernity and the Politics of Gender 115Notes
- For an excellent discussion of Egypt, see Cole (1981); for an account of the
Ottoman/Turkish debates, see Kandiyoti (1991b). - The extent to which contemporary debates on women’s modesty are reliant upon
these dualities is illustrated by Hoffman-Ladd (1987). See also Kandiyoti (1993).
Themes of cultural invasion still remain central to Islamist constructions of female
modesty. - Some illustrations of these infl uences may be found in Jayawardena (1986),
Chatterjee (1990), Kandiyoti (1991a), Baron (1994, 2007), Badran (1995), and
Paidar (1995). - On state-sponsored religious conservatism in Egypt, see Ismail (1998). The
intense competition in the 1990s between various contenders, including
government agencies and the offi cial ulama, is also discussed in Bayat (1998). In
Turkey, ironically – given its posture as the purported guarantor of state
secularism – it was the military who, with the support of the Özal government in
the 1980s, encouraged the building of mosques and the expansion of religious
education. - Some examples of the latter genre may be found in al-Hibri (1982), Mernissi
(1991), Ahmed (1992), Hassan (1996), Wadud (1999), Ezzat (2001) and Barlas
(2002). - Moghadam (2002b) presents an overview of the debates. Major contributions
include Paidar (1995), Afshar (1998), Najmabadi (1998), Mir-Hosseini (1999) and
Moghissi (1999). - The 2005 Arab Human Development Report (UNDP 2006) analyses some of these
defi cits by situating them in the context of complex global and local infl uences
without implicating Islam. Authors who attempt to put Huntington’s ‘clash of
civilisations’ thesis to empirical test using various aggregate data sets, on the
other hand, argue that, if there is a cultural fault line between the Muslim world
and the West, it lies not in the realm of democratic ideals but in the areas of
gender and sexuality (Donno and Russett 2004). - Turkey and the Central Asian republics of the former Soviet Union constitute
exceptions with the full secularisation of their legal codes, while Tunisia also
stands out with one of the most liberal codes in the Arab world. - This encounter demarcated different categories of colonial subjects. The Tatars,
who had been part of the Russian empire since the sixteenth century, were more
thoroughly integrated into its administrative structures. They fulfi lled a special
role, as the tsars spread their rule into extensive Muslim areas in the mid-
nineteenth century. The Kazakh Hordes of the northern tier came under Russian
domination in the second quarter of the eighteenth century and were subject to
openly interventionist colonial policies, including missionary activity and a
massive infl ux of Slav settlers. The southern tier, conquered in the latter half of
the nineteenth century, experienced more accommodationist policies, with tsarist
offi cialdom working within the framework of Islamic institutions and according the
Khanates of Bukhara and Khiva nominal independence under a Protectorate
status. - In practice, the record was replete with instances of evasion of new rules by
means of supplying false witnesses on the age of marriage partners, presenting
false grooms and brides, or substituting a child-bride with an older sister. Criminal