238 Islam and Modernity
it aims to root ‘modernism’ in Islamic tradition. It shares with the other two
discourses the urge to reform Muslim society but disagrees with their rejec-
tion of modernity or tradition. Instead, it affi rms that modernity is compat-
ible with Islam, and a new Islamic theology is required in order to justify this
compatibility.
The discourse appears paradoxical and apologetic on some points. For
instance, it admires Western sciences and technology but is mostly critical of
the West. Islamic modernism explains this ambivalence by distinguishing ‘mod-
ernisation’ from ‘Westernisation’. Nevertheless, Muslim perceptions of what
constitutes the core ideas of modernity seem to be informed by how ‘Western
modernity’ unfolded itself in their experience. For instance, the changing per-
ceptions of modernity as science, nationalism and human rights coincide with
the shifting emphasis in ‘Western modernity’. These paradoxes must be studied
with reference to the debates in which reform discourses developed in Muslim
society. The chapter suggests that, since this discourse is primarily addressed
to Muslims, it must adopt a methodology that is familiar to Muslims. This is
necessary also because, during its interaction with others, it realised that other
discourses rejected modernity or tradition because of their ineffi cient methods
of reasoning. In Islam, theology had evolved historically as a methodological
framework to deal with intellectual challenges. Modernity posed challenges
to which the old theology could not respond. This theology not only refused
to recognise these challenges but also rejected modernity. Islamic modernism,
therefore, called for a new theology. Despite its pivotal signifi cance, this call has
not been studied properly. The chapter proposes to underscore Islamic modern-
ism as a movement for a new Islamic theology.
Before we begin an analysis of these new theologies, a brief account of the
development of Islamic theology in the pre-modern period is given fi rst, to
illustrate that, because of the continuous search for universal principles, Islamic
tradition has been continuously renewing itself.
Ilm al-kalam
Theology (‘ilm al-kalam) in Islamic tradition evolved as a defensive science to
respond to two needs: to justify Islamic beliefs and to provide a framework for
justifi catory reasoning. The terms kalam (theology) and mutakallim (theologian)
were used fi rst with reference to the Mutazila (al-Ashari 1990, vol. 2: 20, 124,
150), who held that the idea of accountability on the Day of Judgement required
belief in human free will. They also believed that the Quran was not co-eternal
with God; it was created and appeared in a concrete historical context. The
Mutazila named this theology the science of ilm al-kalam (al-Shahristani 1975:
32). The systematic development of theology started under the patronage of
the caliphs al-Mamun (reigned 813–32) and al-Mutasim (833–42), when the