the international trade in animal-derived food commodities by requiring exporters
to comply with a diverse range of standards imposed unilaterally by importing
countries. MRLs for veterinary drugs have been developed by the Codex Alimen-
tarius Commission (Codex) to facilitate fair practices in trade, while protecting
consumer health and being compatible with established good use practices. How-
ever, Codex MRLs remain voluntary until they are accepted or used by countries.
The World Trade Organisation’s (WTO) “Agreement on the Application of
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures” (SPS Agreement) specifically cites Codex
standards, guidelines and recommendations as reflecting international consensus
regarding the requirements to protect human health from food-borne hazards (WTO
1995 ). International trade agreements developed by the WTO emphasise the need
for regulations governing international trade in foods to be based on science.
However, other legitimate factors relevant to the health protection of consumers
and the promotion of fair practices in food trade can override scientifically derived
health standards (CCRVDF 2001 ).
The beef hormone trade dispute between the EU and the USA and Canada is one
of the longest-standing disputes in the history of the WTO. A full account of the
dispute can be found on the WTO website (http://www.wto.org). Of the six
compounds in question, three are naturally occurring hormones (oestradiol-17b,
progesterone and testosterone) and three are synthetic drugs which stimulate the
actions of natural hormones (melengestrol acetate, trenbolone acetate and zeranol).
While all these substances are approved for growth promotion use in cattle in the
USA and Canada, the use of hormonal growth promotants has been prohibited in
the EU since 1988. The importation of hormone-treated beef into the EU was
subsequently prohibited on 1 January 1989. The USA, and later Canada, challenged
the legality of the importation ban at the WTO in 1997. Since then, many WTO
rulings relating to the dispute have been appealed and additional complaints have
been filed by all parties involved. As recently as October 2008, earlier WTO
decisions were overturned on appeal, allowing the EU to continue its ban on the
importation of hormone-treated beef, and the USA and Canada to continue to take
retaliatory measures against imports from the EU. The beef hormone trade dispute
remained unresolved at the time this chapter was prepared.
2 The Food Safety Risk Analysis Framework
During the past 30 years, a risk analysis framework for food safety has been devel-
oped; it has gained wide acceptance as the preferred way to assess possible links
between hazards in food and actual risks to human health (FAO 2006 ). Risk analysis
comprises three major elements: risk assessment, risk management and risk commu-
nication. In the context of veterinary drug residues, the risk analysis framework
provides for estimating the risks to consumer health, for identifying and implement-
ing appropriate measures to manage those risks, and for communicating information
on the risks and the measures applied in their management to stakeholders. Trade in
Drug Residues 267