Assessment • 123administration of tasks (including the materials being offered) and for scales that result in
inter-rater reliability.
In 1958, when projective techniques were being used and created by many, clinical
psychologist Emanuel Hammer (1958) edited Projective Drawings, in which Naumburg
described the history of art therapy and presented a case study. She also noted some of the
similarities and differences between prompted, standardized, projective drawings, and the
spontaneous work created in art therapy that are still valid (cf. also Hammer, 1997).
Despite numerous research studies, in which most of the common assumptions about
the meanings of various “signs” could not be validated, projective drawings have remained
popular among some clinical psychologists (Liebowitz, 1999; Oster & Crone, 2004; Oster
& Montgomery, 1996) and some art therapists (Brooke, 2004). This is probably due to their
ease of administration, as well as the richness of material obtained. Many inventive ideas
have been proposed by individual clinicians over the years.
Some involved alterations of some sort (Hammer, 1958). Rosenberg, for example, offered
the freedom to change completed drawings (of a man and a woman) in any way, using a
carbon copy for comparison. Caligor went further with the Eight-Figure Redrawing Test,
Figure 6.4 Florence Cane teaching a class.