Technique(s) • 155choice of media, degree of task structure, and the nature of the task itself. The goal was
central in an early attempt to classify Techniques for Individual and Group Art Therapy
(Ulman and Dachinger, 1975), whether for: exploration, rapport building, expression of
inner feelings, self-perception, interpersonal relations, or the individual’s place in the world
(cf. Robbins, 1994).
Thinking clearly about the goal of an art activity makes it easier for the therapist to decide
what to do. If it is diagnostic, to assess someone’s perception of their family, requesting a
family drawing would clearly be in order. If the wish is to see how someone sees himself, a
self-portrait might be in order. If the goal is to ascertain a patient’s ability to function inde-
pendently, then a free choice procedure would make sense.
On the other hand, the goal might be primarily therapeutic, such as helping a constricted
individual to become freer. In that case, activities like developing an image from a scribble,
or closing eyes and reporting whatever imagery arises might make sense. If the goal is to
increase self-esteem, an activity with a high potential for success would be in order, such as
modeling with colored plasticine clay or creating a torn tissue-paper collage with thinned
white glue and brush on white drawing paper, both of which result in attractive products.
On the other hand, if the aim is to help a couple to become aware of their interaction pat-
terns, working together without talking might be indicated. These are just a few examples of
ways to use goal setting to decide what to do and how to do it.
In deciding how to proceed, art therapists have three main elements at their disposal,
which can have varying degrees of structure or specificity: media, theme, and manner of
working. Regarding media, people can be offered an open choice from among two or more
alternatives (e.g., drawing or painting), the specified use of a class (e.g., drawing materials),
or a request to use a specific material (e.g., pastels).
Knowing the characteristics of different materials helps art therapists greatly. To assess
the degree of elaboration in someone’s drawing, for example, it is necessary to offer only
easily controllable media like drawing pens, colored pencils, or fine felt tip markers, which
will allow them to represent details. On the other hand, if people need to cover a large area
rapidly, a medium like thick poster chalks is more appropriate.
Art therapists Sandra Kagin Graves ( F i g u r e 7. 6), who conceptualized media dimen-
sions variables, and Vija Lusebrink (Figure 7.7) (1990) together elaborated the Expressive
Therapies Continuum (ETC) model. It postulates four levels of image formation and infor-
mation processing, in a developmental sequence from kinesthetic/sensory (K/S) to percep-
tual/aἀective (P/A) to cognitive/symbolic (C/S). The creative level (CR) can be present at any
and may be a synthesis of all. This model offers a way to think about media and activities
according to specific objectives for people at different levels of functioning. Lusebrink gives
a number of examples of how to use it in decision making. Lisa Hinz (2009) has recently
elaborated this model in a new book on the ETC.
Another area where art therapists have options is the theme, which can be open-ended,
such as “Do what you want,” or more or less specific, as in “Draw a feeling” or “Represent
anger.” When in doubt, it is safest to stay at a more symbolic level, since art allows for a
substantial degree of disguise. For example, if the goal is to help someone to become aware
of anger at their mother without risking resistance, a request to draw a witch might be more
fruitful than asking for a picture of the parent herself.
The third element art therapists have at their disposal in deciding what to do is the man-
ner in which the task is to be accomplished. It can relate to the interaction, as in “Choose
a partner and draw each other,” the time, as in “Do a one-minute gesture drawing,” or the
method, as in “Model a piece of clay with your eyes closed.” A central variable is the degree