The developments outlined above point to similar experi-
ences in different churches across the Roman empire. It is clear,
however, that there was also much variation. For example, the
practice of a bishop being consecrated by his peers seems only
to have begun at Alexandria with the election of Athanasius in
AD328 (Gryson 1973: 395–9). Equally, fourth-century church
councils disagreed about the precise number of bishops who
ought to participate in the consecrations of their colleagues (Hess
2002: 146–61). The fourth century also saw the formalization
of episcopal hierarchies, where certain bishops held a higher
authority over others in the same region. In the third century, such
a phenomenon may be observed in the case of the city of Rome
and in north Africa under the episcopate of Cyprian – in the latter
case, however, this may have had as much to do with Cyprian’s
forceful personality as with the formalities of ecclesiastical
administration (Rives 1995: 303).
From the reign of Constantine onwards, leadership func-
tions seem to have devolved on certain metropolitan sees, which
were, for the most part, located in cities that were also the head-
quarters of Roman administration in the provinces. In some cases,
this merging of the structures of ecclesiastical and imperial
administration provoked problems: in Palestine, the bishop of
Jerusalem claimed special status by virtue of his city’s historical
importance for Christians, but he faced challenges from the
bishop of Caesarea, whose city had long been the provincial
capital. A further problem that emerged in the fourth century was
defining what sort of centre should boast a bishop. At a council
held in Serdica (modern Sofia) in 342 or 343, it was argued that
bishops should not be appointed to villages or small towns where
a single priest would suffice, lest the episcopal title and authority
risk suffering humiliation (Hess 2002: 154–7). This resolution
flew in the face of the reality in many parts of the empire, espe-
cially in regions where Christianity had made early gains. In north
Africa bishops were found even in small towns (Lepelley 1981:
371–6), while in Asia Minor a distinction developed between
episkopoi, who were the bishops of cities, and cho ̄repiskopoi
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