investigation surely implies that he knew of such investigations,
perhaps at Rome, in the recent past. He supplements this general
statement about his lack of experience with three further ques-
tions that were vexing him especially (§ 2): about the distinctions
(if any) to be made on grounds of age; whether renunciation of
Christianity is adequate to secure a pardon; and, perhaps most
significantly, about the precise nature of the charges against the
Christians, specifically whether they were to be condemned
simply for the ‘name’ (nomen) of being Christian, or for ‘crimes’
(flagitia) associated with the name. Given his inexperience, Pliny
aims to explain to the emperor the nature of his conduct thus far
in the investigation. Now that his inquiries have reached an
impasse, he is keen to hear Trajan’s guidance.
Pliny’s confusion over the nature of the charge – nomen
orflagitia– reflects a legal uncertainty about the treatment of
Christians that was reflected in writings by Christians themselves.
Apologists of the second and early third centuries – notably Justin
(Apology1.4), Athenagoras (Embassy2), and Tertullian (Apology
3.20) – were keen to stress that there was no criminality what-
soever to be associated with the ‘name’ of being Christian. The
very fact that they made such statements, however, suggests that
the assumption of criminality was common. There is more posi-
tive evidence, too, from the period of Pliny’s letter. Tacitus called
Christianity a ‘destructive superstition’ (exitiabilis superstitio:
Annals15.44.4) while for Suetonius it was, as we have seen,
‘depraved and malevolent’ (Life of Nero16.2; see p. 198). Pre-
sumably Pliny – who was a friend to both Tacitus and Suetonius
(Sherwin-White 1966: 745, 759) – would have shared their
view. Like them, he describes Christianity in § 8 of his letter
in negative terms as ‘a depraved and immoderate superstition’
(superstitio prava et immodica). Furthermore, he assumes that
Christianity poses a threat, as is clear from his assertions that men
and women, adults and children, of all classes, and from town and
country alike are involved in the cult, and his implication that tra-
ditional forms of pagan worship had been abandoned (§§ 9–10).
These observations are almost certainly clouded by exaggeration
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