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Thinking Critically About Complex Concepts
development rather than the demonstration of skills. In order to develop skills, students
need opportunities to practice, to receive feedback (from peers and instructors), and to
assimilate feedback. This requires multiple discussions, activities, and assignments that
build on one another and yield a culminating product.
This approach could be used to teach any concept in psychology, in any course. In the
example provided in this chapter, all students worked on the same concept because it was
central to the course; however, groups could work on different concepts and still progress
through the same process, including the paired-group feedback sessions and discussions.
For example, in a Personality course, each group could focus on a different characteristic
(optimism, neuroticism, extraversion); in an Abnormal Psychology course, each group
could focus on a different type of disorder (depression, anxiety, schizophrenia); and in an
Introduction to Psychology course, groups could, in addition to those listed previously,
select from a variety of concepts that represent each of the topical areas discussed (percep-
tion, sleep, addiction, intelligence, motivation, attitudes, conformity).
As described here, this approach takes place over several weeks and requires five to six
class meetings. Because students submit assignments for each of the steps, class meetings
devoted to this process do not occur consecutively; other course material is covered
between each step. Although the content communicated by the instructor (definitions of
stress, the components of a stress measure, distinctions between reliability and validity, the
relationship between stress definitions and the biopsychosocial model, and the differences
between lay and professional stress measures) could be covered in one or two lectures, we
maintain that condensing the material to two lectures would result in critical thinking that
is limited to retention and comprehension, Appleby’s first two skills.
In addition to developing a deeper understanding of a specific concept (stress), this
approach includes a variety of techniques such as reflective writing (Rickabaugh, 1993)
and collaboration (Cooper, 1995) that have been demonstrated to enhance the develop-
ment of critical thinking skills. Although students work through the content of their
reaction papers in groups, each student is required to write his or her own reaction
paper. Reaction papers provide a basis for students to elaborate on ideas discussed in the
group, to assess their knowledge and skills, and to develop written communication skills
(Rickabaugh, 1993).
Although this approach could be modified from a group process to a set of individual
activities, the collaborative aspect is believed to be essential in the development of deeper
concept mastery and the development of critical thinking skills. According to Cooper
(1995), working in heterogeneous groups to solve a common problem leads to the devel-
opment of divergent thinking and to the discovery of the steps that lead to the end prod-
ucts that are typically the focus of lectures; the “model–practice–feedback” loop involves
interactions between students and interactions between students and instructor that sup-
port the active learning and critical thinking of each student. Group discussions provide
opportunities for students to model critical thinking, to develop interpersonal communi-
cation skills such as listening to others’ ideas and providing constructive feedback, and to
develop the ability to communicate complex ideas.
Similarly, discussions between the instructor and the group provide opportunities for the
instructor to model critical thinking, a technique that Gray (1993) referred to as “instructor
as thinker” (p. 70) and argued is essential to successfully teach critical thinking. For example,