modernity
MODERNITY
This notion can be grasped as a contrast concept because it compares
itself with what precedes it in a transition from the traditional to the new.
This is embodied in its linguistic derivation from the Latin modernus
that itself originally consists of modo (equivalent to nunc, now, new).
Ninth-century Christians use the concept to differentiate historical peri-
ods. It is used in the thirteenth century by Christian theologians to com-
pare their thinking with an earlier antiquity, and Enlightenment thinkers
did the same thing with the Middle Ages, implying a decisive break with
the past.
After the enlightenment in the eighteenth century, modernity is associ-
ated with what is progressive, innovative, and current. In such a context,
modernity can be grasped as a process that includes the following types
of elements: emergence of nation states; industrialization; market capital-
ism; democratization; rationalization; urbanism; and secularization.
These features of modernity suggest that these characteristics not only
coexist, but also generate counter-modernities, suggesting that there is no
overarching modernity that applies to all situations. Thus it is best to
become aware that there are many modernities. Recent theories offered
by Giddens and Wagner discuss the process of separation and recombina-
tion of time and space and disruption of local social relations.
Further reading: Benavides (1998); Giddens (1990); Wagner (1994)
MONASTICISM
Christianity is open to the development of monasticism, Judaism rejects
it, and Islam is suspicious of it. Monasticism develops gradually in some
movements within Hinduism and is encouraged from the inception of
Buddhism. In the West, the term originates with the Greek monachos
(alone or solitary) with possibly an earlier meaning of celibate. Over
time, monasticism refers to individuals who withdraw from society in
order to devote full time to their religious life by praying, living a disci-
plined life, and practicing various forms of asceticism. Those choosing
such a lifestyle can decide to live alone as an anchorite or adopt a ceno-
bitic (living in community) way of life.
Although there are some references in the New Testament that suggest
a monastic lifestyle (Mark 8.34; Matt. 19.12, 21; Luke 9.23; 14.26–27; 1