music
part of the worship. Examples of Christian hymns of praise are the so-
called Sanctus and Gloria, which both express adoration of God. By the
eleventh century, a more polyphony form is introduced coming to matu-
rity by the fourteenth century. Before being used in worship, instrumental
music is used to acclaim and praise members of the upper classes: the
emperor, nobility, Pope, and bishops. During the eighth or ninth century,
musical instruments are introduced into the liturgy. By 1300, many major
churches in western Europe own an organ and attract those with the abil-
ity to play it. A noteworthy figure during the Middle Ages of Europe is
Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179), who creates a musical anthology from
1150–1160 called Symphony of the Harmony of the Celestial Revelations.
Within her theology of music, Hildegard equates Adam’s fall with that of
music, which she imagines as a vehicle of grace that corrects the fall.
According to Hildegard’s interpretation of the Genesis narrative, the
Devil’s negative reaction to Adam’s singing motivates him to corrupt the
first man. Therefore, the Devil is not merely out of harmony with God,
but the entire universe is also inherently musical. This type of sinful –
anti-musical – condition, according to Hildegard’s imagination, can be
overcome by singing, a musical activity that reflects a celestial harmony
and recalls the Incarnation of Christ. By making music, we unite body
and spirit, reconcile the individual with the cosmos, and restore internal
and external harmony. Thus, music can be grasped as an important
feature on the path to salvation.
During the Reformation, music is used to tell biblical stories as evident
in the compositions of Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672). Renowned com-
posers are commissioned to write church music of wonderful quality and
complexity, with men such as J. S. Bach (1685–1750) recalling the
Passions according to the Gospels of Matthew and John. Others follow
Bach, such as Haydn (1732–1809), Mozart (1756–1791), and Beethoven
(1770–1827). In his compositions for the High Mass, Mozart often uses,
for instance, drums and horn instruments, such as trumpets and trom-
bones, to express adoration and celebration of God. Taking a basic musi-
cal key of the non-expressive C, Mozart lifts this part to the realm of the
impassioned and trans-temporal. Mozart contrasts heaven and earth by
moving from adoration to the allegro of jubilant praise. Christian music
possesses the power to render words meaningless by synthesizing all
texts into a single moment. Thereby, it transforms the whole liturgy into
a single gesture of humility, respect, and adoration.
Confucians not only play a zither-like instrument like that in Daoism
that is regarded as a way to realize the Dao, but Confucius also advocates
music as an instrument of education and court ceremony. Drawing a dis-
tinction between popular and ritual music, Confucius thinks that music