an introductionindigenous people) forms of culture by comparing higher forms of civi-
lization in the West with simple, inferior religious cultures. Using what
he claimed was objective observation and a comparative approach to his
subject, Tylor discovered animism, a belief in the existence of deceased
souls, as the foundation of religion for indigenous peoples.
In a similar way, Frazer, the acknowledged father of anthropology,
envisioned the evolutionary scheme as moving from magic, to religion,
and finally to science. With respect to magic, it operated by two laws:
similarity and contact, which Frazer contended was an erroneous system
of natural law, a fallacious guide of conduct, and therefore a false sci-
ence. As an example of propitiation and conciliation of presupposed
supernatural powers in comparison to human beings, religion was basi-
cally opposed to magic, which he defined as a false discipline and errone-
ous association of ideas that can never become a science, but was more
akin to a form of art. Although there were other theorists at this moment
of Western intellectual history making contributions to the study of reli-
gion, Frazer and Tylor were typical of those replacing the theological
depiction of human nature as fallen and sinful with the more scientific
theory of evolution, and the observation that human institutions were
human products and not of divine origin.
Another nineteenth-century figure of significance was Friedrich Max
Müller (1823–1900), a scholar trained in comparative philology before
turning to comparative religion and mythology. Believing all knowledge
was based in comparison, Müller adopted a comparative approach seeking
to devise a new science that would adhere to the laws of cause and effect,
being both inductive and comparative. He argued, for instance, for the
importance of solar mythology because its gods and heroes originated in
solar metaphors, and he speculated that India was the location for the
origin of all religion. Within the context of his science of religion, Müller
held a grand vision that included a revitalization of Christianity, altering
one’s views of others, finding common ground between different cultures,
teaching cross-cultural lessons, and becoming aware of the inevitable
decay of religion for which he found evidence in language. Encompassing
this scenario, there would be an evolution toward the reconstruction of the
City of God on earth that would include both East and West. According to
Müller, religion reflected the human ability to perceive the infinite or eter-
nal truth. In fact, all religions were able to some degree to perceive and
manifest the following elements: belief in God or gods, immortality of the
soul, and the possibility of future salvation.
In contrast to those seeking to discern the evolution of religion, there
was a dissenter in Andrew Lang (1844–1912), an isolated voice among
the evolutionary theorists. Lang’s work would eventually mark a turn