otherexamples of Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox forms of Christianity,
it is not unusual to have competing forms of orthodoxy. The attempt to
determine what precisely is the orthodox position of a particular religion
often resorts to ancient authority, such as historical figures like Jesus,
Muhammad, or the Buddha. The process of deciding the exact nature of
orthodoxy follows a pattern of inclusion and exclusion of different opin-
ions, interpretations, and ideology. Once orthodoxy is determined it
becomes binding on all adherents and often assumes the status of law, and
it thereby regulates the belief system and religious behavior of adherents
while also legitimizing it.
In Western Christianity, orthodox doctrine assumes the forms of cat-
echism and oral confessions of faith or creeds. The former takes the
format of questions followed by answers in oral or written forms. A cat-
echism is an official manual intended for popular instruction, which is a
very systematic and standardized version of official church doctrine. The
term creed is derived from the Latin credo (I believe) and is more a for-
mal statement in summarized form of accepted beliefs and a genuine
statement of doctrine. The Apostles Creed and the Nicene Creed are
excellent examples of such documents.
Besides authorizing orthodoxies, creeds and catechisms are not remote
from political necessity and expediency. The legislative bodies that deter-
mine orthodoxy are often influenced by the political climate of the his-
torical period. Christian orthodoxy in the West is established by a number
of councils over the centuries. A similar number of councils shaped
Buddhist literature and doctrine. According to Buddhist tradition, the first
council after the death of the Buddha was held at Rājagriha in order to
establish his authoritative teachings on a site donated by King Bimbisāra.
The second Buddhist gathering is the Council of Vaiśālī called for the
purpose of confronting disputes about monastic discipline, which results
in a split of the community into two sects: Sthavīras (Elders) and
MahāsamÛgikas (Great Assembly). Other councils would follow, but
the scholarly debate about which councils actually occur and for what
purpose continues in Buddhist scholarship.
Further reading: Berger (1979); Grant (2004); Olson (2005)OTHER
This is a relational concept that refers to a researcher and his/her subject
within the context of religious scholarship. The other is distinguished