spiritsitself and the other. Finally, Derrida asserts metaphysics reigns within
Austin’s work.
Regardless of Derrida’s criticism of him, Austin’s theory of speech acts
as performative utterance manifests a major impact on ritual theory.
Anthropological representatives include Gilbert Lewis, Victor Turner,
and Stanley Tambiah. In addition to the ritual context, performative utter-
ances also play a role in a religion such as Zen Buddhism and its use of
unusual teaching methods. There are numerous examples of a word or
shout being uttered and triggering an enlightenment experience. The
same result is evident with beatings administered by enlightened masters
upon students, the raising of a fly whisk, or a single finger. If the student
is prepared, any of these performative utterances or actions can elicit a
spiritual breakthrough.Further reading: Austin (1962); Derrida (1976); Lewis (1971); Searle (1969);
Tambiah (1990); Turner (1967)
SPIRITS
In comparison to personalized and individualized gods, spirits usually
represent a collective group that is often large. Being usually below the
gods in rank and owning their origin to gods, spirits are often closer to
the everyday life of a people as protectors or as inflictors of punishment
for some transgression. Sometimes, specific spirits separate from the
group and assume temporary or permanent abode in a specific place or
object. Spirits play roles in religious traditions around the globe, espe-
cially at the local level of a tradition where they come into close contact
with ordinary people.
Among Native American Indians, there are numerous categories of
spirits, with the master of animals considered among the most important.
Ruling over all animals or a single animal species, the master of animals
sees that no animals are killed unnecessarily and insures that they are
treated with care. After an animal is killed, it must be buried with appro-
priate rituals as in the Bear Ceremony of the Northern Saulteau. As part
of this ceremony, a hunter addresses the bear before killing it to apologize
for the violence that is about to occur, and explains the rationale for the
killing to the animal. Afterward, the hunter dresses the bear in fine cloth-
ing, and erects a pole upon which are hung the bear’s skull, skin, and its
ears. This ceremonial pattern is a means of showing respect for the bear
and for the master of species. As a consequence of this respect, future