spiritsgame and continued success in hunting are assured. The ritualistic respect
given to the bear implies treating it like a person with whom the hunter
is related in a personal way.
In addition to the master of animals, Native American Indians recog-
nize nature spirits. The Dakota and Cheyenne revere the Black Hills as
the homeland of the spirits, and Yellowstone Park is believed to be
inhabited by spirits. The Shoshoni assume that rock cravings in the
mountains are made by spirits and the Pueblo venerate lakes and other
apertures in the earth’s surface from which their ancestors emerged.
More specifically, Indians recognize spirits in rocks. For instance, Inyan
is a term for all rocks among the Sioux, and is considered the oldest
divinity and ancestor of all things and all gods. Particularly large boul-
ders are decorated with paint to call attention to their significance,
whereas prayers and dog sacrifices are also addressed to them. Animal-
shaped stones are kept by the Crow Indians as powerful medicine.
Indians also identify spirits of water such as seas, lakes, springs, or rivers
as guardian spirits.
American Indians also believe in personal guardian spirits that can be
given at birth or later acquired by an individual. Among the Pueblo, Santa
Ana comes at birth and is believed to prevent a person from committing
a wrong action. This spirit receives food sacrifices before each meal by
the person that it guards. Acquired guardian spirits are obtained through
visions in secluded places. These spirits often appear in animal form, and
they endow their protégé with some kind of capacity, such as strength or
wisdom; or the spirit might give a person a medicine bundle that includes
animal parts, pipes, rattles, or corn cobs and is believed to possess heal-
ing magic. If a person transgresses a taboo, the guardian spirit may then
leave the guilty person. During the course of their relationship, an indi-
vidual acquires the characteristics and possibly the name of the guardian
spirit, and he paints tattoos on his body to resemble the spirit and deco-
rates his clothes and weapons with, for instance, the claws, feathers, and
fur of the animal.
If one concentrates on a single society such as the Ojibwa, it is possible
to witness the complexity of spirit beliefs. According to the Ojibwa, the
source of Indian existence can be traced to manitos, which are powerful
beings. The four winds are responsible for seasonal changes and weather,
whereas underwater manitos are composed of two beings: underwater
lion and horned serpent. This composite spirit influences the abundance
and availability of land and sea animals. The underwater manitos also
cause rapids and stormy waters. Thunderbirds are hawk-like birds that
manifest themselves through thunder and lightning and control various
types of winged animals; they are considered powerful guardian spirits