suffering
that are sought in visions. The owners of nature are the spirits of each
species, who control animals and demand respect and offerings from
Indians, and the owners of sacred places are identified with, for instance,
springs and waterfalls. Finally, the windigo is a spirit identified as a giant
cannibal made of ice, which is symbolic of winter and starvation, and
prefers to eat human flesh.
The Nuer people of Africa make a clear distinction between spirits of
the air above and spirits of below. The former type of spirit is represented
by the sun, a craftsman of God, who can twist the bodies of humans and
deform them. Other spirits are associated with cattle, rain, lightning, riv-
ers, and wild animals. There is also a spirit of war, who is connected with
clan spear names and thunder. A female spirit is associated with rivers
and streams. The colwic spirits are former people who may have been
struck by lightning. Although they retain their personal identity and often
attach themselves to individuals of their own families or lineages, these
former humans are believed to be chosen by god and become a part of
god. The colwic spirits, who delight in blood and battle, may possess
people or make them sick. The lower spirits are believed to have fallen
from above, and there are four major types of them: totemic spirits,
totemistic spirits, nature sprites, and fetishes. The first type refers to the
relationship between a spirit and a social group, whereas the second type
indicates a relationship between a spirit and an individual. Nature sprites
attach themselves to objects, and fetishes are pieces of wood, which are
very dangerous, but function as medicines that can communicate. These
amoral fetishes can be acquired by purchase or inherited.
From these types of examples, it is possible to recognize that spirits are
often treated like gods by demanding sacrifices and worship. They act in
ways that recall the behavior of gods, such as providing assistance to
humans or punishing them. In many cultures, the spirits are considered
relationally closer to the people and more caring than gods.
Further reading: Beattie and Middleton (1969); Evans-Pritchard (1956); Gill
(1982); Hultkrantz (1992, 1997); Lewis (1971); Smith (2006)
SUFFERING
Suffering is a global experience of physical and mental pain directly
caused by violence, anxiety, fear, loss of a loved one, loneliness, vulner-
ability, or simply frustration of desires. The reality of suffering gives rise