sunpleasant and joyous moments of life there is suffering because such
moments do not last and their passing causes sorrow. Inherent suffering
is related to the changing nature of things and a person’s tendency to
cling to self, I, or ego and to ignorantly assume that it is possible to sat-
isfy the self when in fact it does not even exist because it is a heap of
ever-changing elements that does not endure from one moment to the
next. The only way to end suffering, which is tied to rebirth, is to attain
nirvāÏa by following the Noble Eightfold Path of the Buddha, which
takes a person outside of the cycle of causation.
As in Buddhism, Jains believe that suffering is inevitable because joy
and happiness are impermanent, whereas violence, cruelty, and injustice
dominated life within the world. In the Jain worldview, an omniscient
and merciful god is unnecessary because it is the law of karma, which is
the concept of cause and effect, that explains the fate of individuals at
death based on one’s deeds, and the reality of evil and suffering. If suf-
fering is inevitable in the Jain perspective, suffering can still be grasped
as a test of a person’s actions and that person’s potential for liberation.
Further reading: Bowker (1970); Cort (2001); Olson (2005)SUN
The sun is arguably the most visible object in nature. It is absolutely
necessary for life and embodies great power and religious significance,
such as truth and justice. In ancient times, the sun was deified by many
religious cultures around the globe.
In ancient Mesopotamia, the sun god is Šamaš, a masculine figure
conceived as a judge, punisher of transgressions, fighter of injustice, and
helper of those in need. He is described as uttering oaths and becomes the
patron god of soothsayers. Every evening he descends in the west to the
realm of the dead. Ancient Egyptians identify the sun god by at least three
names: Re conceived as a falcon is the most common; Atum is located in
the city of Heliopolis and represents the evening sun that sinks; the morn-
ing sun is Kheprer who is represented by a sun-disk believed to be the
right eye of Horus. Among ancient Iranians, Mithra is associated with the
sun by means of his origin. In South America, the tribal god of the Incas
is Inti, a male figure, considered the mythical ancestor of the political
dynasty. In ancient India, the sun is called Sūrya, and the most sacred
Vedic hymn is address to the sun deity called Savitri. The deity Vishnu is