artTemples are a later addition to Buddhism in Asia, which manifest its
early architectural focus on stūpas (memorial mounds) for the remains
(relics) of holy persons. Buddhists believe that the relics of the Buddha,
for instance, are infused with morality, concentration, wisdom, or other
such qualities. Because the relics are believed to possess life, it is accepted
that the Buddha is present and alive wherever the relics are located. Much
like mosques, churches, and temples, stūpas are places of pilgrimage and
locations for the acquisition of merit.
In the Chinese Daoist tradition, a distinction is made between two
models of temple architecture: metaphorical and cosmological. The met-
aphorical model imitates the architecture of administrative residences
and becomes the residence of an official. The metaphorical structure is
characterized by a curved roof, ending, for instance, in a swallow-tailed
point, possesses red pillars and doors, has statues of lions at the entrance,
and a bell and drum suspended on either side of the door. In the cosmo-
logical model, temples are paradigms of the world in which the principal
door opens toward the south and contains images of a Green Dragon and
White Tiger on either side of the door, representing, respectively, the
eastern direction and the western direction. A celestial vault is repre-
sented by a dome located inside the roof, indicative of a sacred moun-
tain, which stands for the paradise of the Immortals (legendary figures
and heroes of sacred myths). On the top of the roof, two earthenware
dragons confront each other over a flaming pearl, representing the radiant
energy that emanates from the incense burner located in the center of the
temple. The incense burner manifests the essential element of worship
and social unity. The architectural edifices mentioned serve social, eco-
nomic, educational, and political functions in their religions. Because
many of these cross-cultural structures are built with donations from
wealthy nobles or religious organizations, they are also symbols of tem-
poral power, manifesting the socio-economic status, cultural power, and
superiority of the donors.Further reading: Humphrey and Vitebsky (1997); Kramrisch (1946); Leidy
(2008); Petruccioli and Priani (2002)ART
Representing the material dimension of religion, art is a human creation
that enables one to give expression to one’s faith, imagination, beauty,
emotions, religious history, and worldview. Religious art not only