cursingideology of modernity. Culture is less a neutral category than a theoreti-
cal argument centered in a particular method and viewpoint.Further reading: Bourdieu (1990); Geertz (1973); Masuzawa (2005); Ringer
(1969); Smith (1978, 2004); Sperber (1996); Tylor (1871); Williams (1963)
CURSING
From one perspective, cursing is a negative speech act that attempts to
harm another party. Its opposite is a blessing, a positive act, which is usu-
ally given by an authoritative person, such as a priest or parent. Cursing
and blessing are both forms of communication with the divine in the form
of oaths and operate magically without additional ritual actions, although
the former tends to bring the name of God into disrepute. This is the
rationale for Jesus (Matt. 5.33–37) and Muhammad instructing followers
to abstain from swearing oaths. Aware of the power of cursing, Jewish
rabbis only permit it when religiously motivated.
In ancient Greece and Rome, curses (katadesmoi, defixioiones) are
written back to front or as nonsense script on lead, wax, or papyrus and
buried in wells, other subterranean areas, or tombs because the curser is
attempting to elicit the assistance of underworld powers. Two important
forms of Greco-Roman curses are direct formulas that use a first-person
verb to curse another person, a performative utterance that is expected
to make the curse work automatically. The second type of formula uses
an imperative verb that directs divine actions, demons, or the dead to
harm a victim. These types of formulas are believed to have an auto-
matic effect, which is the reason they have to be destroyed immediately
by an intended victim. Generally, there are three types of curses: revenge,
binding, and conditional. Having been harmed in the past, a person
utters a revenge curse in order to punish the offending party. Without
reference to right or wrong, the binding curse is intended to restrain
another person in any action that that rival might take in the future with
regards to athletics, legal issues, economics, or love. It is a common
belief that curses empower the politically disenfranchised. The condi-
tional curse implies that if an event occurs then the cause will come to
fruition.
In the Hebrew Bible, God curses the serpent (Gen. 3.14) and Adam and
Eve (3.17) for their transgression. In addition, Cain is cursed from the
earth (Gen. 4.11) for his misdeed. According to the Book of Proverbs
(26.2), an undeserved curse is not effective, and it may revert back upon