The Language of Argument

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97364_fm_ptg01_i-xvi.indd 12 15/11/13 8:36 PM

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• Part I How to Analyze Arguments Preface XV


• Chapter


• Uses of Arguments
  
  
  • What Arguments Are
  
  
  • Justifications
  
  
  • Explanations
  
  
  • Combinations: An Example
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• The Web of Language
  
  
  • Language and Convention
  
  
  • Linguistic Acts
  
  
  • Speech Acts
    
    
    • Performatives
    
    
    • Kinds of Speech Acts
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Conversational Acts
    
    
    • Conversational Rules
    
    
    • Conversational Implication
    
    
    • Rhetorical Devices
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Summary
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• The Language of Argument
  
  
  • Argument Markers
    
    
    • If , then
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Arguments in Standard Form
  
  
  • A Problem and Some Solutions
    
    
    • Assuring
    
    
    • Guarding C o n t e n t s
    
    
    • Discounting
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Evaluative Language
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• The Art of Close Analysis
  
  
  • An Extended Example
    
    
    • Clerk Hire Allowance, House of Representatives
    
    
    
    
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• Deep Analysis
  
  
  • Getting Down to Basics
  
  
  • Clarifying Crucial Terms
  
  
  • Dissecting the Argument
  
  
  • Arranging Subarguments
  
  
  • Some Standards for Evaluating Arguments
    
    
    • Validity
    
    
    • Truth
    
    
    • Soundness
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Suppressed Premises
    
    
    • Contingent Facts
    
    
    • Linguistic Principles
    
    
    • Evaluative Suppressed Premises
    
    
    • Uses and Abuses of Suppressed Premises
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • The Method of Reconstruction
  
  
  • An Example of Reconstruction: Capital Punishment
  
  
  
  


• Standards Part II How to Evaluate Arguments: Deductive


• Chapter


• Propositional Logic
  
  
  • The Formal Analysis of Arguments
  
  
  • Basic Propositional Connectives
    
    
    • Conjunction
    
    
    • Disjunction
    
    
    • Negation
    
    
    • Process of Elimination
    
    
    • How Truth-Functional Connectives Work
    
    
    • Testing for Validity C o n t e n t s
    
    
    • Some Further Connectives
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Conditionals
    
    
    • Truth Tables for Conditionals
    
    
    • Logical Language and Everyday Language
    
    
    • Other Conditionals in Ordinary Language
    
    
    
    
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• Categorical Logic
  
  
  • Beyond Propositional Logic
  
  
  • Categorical Propositions
    
    
    • The Four Basic Categorical Forms
    
    
    • Translation into the Basic Categorical Forms
    
    
    • Contradictories
    
    
    • Existential Commitment
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Validity for Categorical Arguments
    
    
    • Categorical Immediate Inferences
    
    
    • The Theory of the Syllogism
    
    
    
    
  
  
  
  


• Standards Part III How to Evaluate Arguments: Inductive


• Chapter


• Arguments To and From Generalizations
  
  
  • Induction versus Deduction
  
  
  • Statistical Generalizations
    
    
    • Should We Accept the Premises?
    
    
    • Is the Sample Large Enough?
    
    
    • Is the Sample Biased?
    
    
    • Is the Sampling Procedure Biased?
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Statistical Applications
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• Analogy Inference to the Best Explanation and from
  
  
  • Inferences to the Best Explanation
    
    
    • Which Explanation Is Best?
    
    
    • Context Is Crucial
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Arguments from Analogy
    
    
    • Are Analogies Explanations?
    
    
    
    
  
  
  
  


• Chapter C o n t e n t s


• Causal Reasoning
  
  
  • Reasoning About Causes
  
  
  • Sufficient Conditions and Necessary Conditions
    
    
    • The Sufficient Condition Test
    
    
    • The Necessary Condition Test
    
    
    • The Joint Test
    
    
    • Rigorous Testing
    
    
    • Reaching Positive Conclusions
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Applying These Methods to Find Causes
    
    
    • Normality
    
    
    • Background Assumptions
    
    
    • A Detailed Example
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Concomitant Variation
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• Chances
  
  
  • Some Fallacies of Probability
    
    
    • The Gambler’s Fallacy
    
    
    • Heuristics
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • The Language of Probability
  
  
  • A Priori Probability
  
  
  • Some Rules of Probability
    
    
    • Probabilities of Negations
    
    
    • Probabilities of Conjunctions
    
    
    • Probabilities of Disjunctions
    
    
    • Probabilities in a Series
    
    
    • Permutations and Combinations
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Bayes’s Theorem
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• Choices
  
  
  • Expected Monetary Value
  
  
  • Expected Overall Value
  
  
  • Decisions Under Ignorance
  
  
  
  


• Part IV Fallacies C o n t e n t s


• Chapter


• Fallacies of Vagueness
  
  
  • Uses of Unclarity
  
  
  • Vagueness
  
  
  • Heaps
  
  
  • Slippery Slopes
    
    
    • Conceptual Slippery-Slope Arguments
    
    
    • Fairness Slippery-Slope Arguments
    
    
    • Causal Slippery-Slope Arguments
    
    
    
    
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• Fallacies of Ambiguity
  
  
  • Ambiguity
  
  
  • Equivocation
  
  
  • Definitions
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• Fallacies of Relevance
  
  
  • Relevance
  
  
  • Ad Hominem Arguments
    
    
    • Inconsistency
    
    
    • Genetic Fallacies
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Appeals to Authority
  
  
  • More Fallacies of Relevance
    
    
    • Appeals to Popular Opinion
    
    
    • Appeals to Emotion
    
    
    
    
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• Fallacies of Vacuity
  
  
  • Circularity
  
  
  • Begging the Question
  
  
  • Self-Sealers
  
  
  
  


• Chapter C o n t e n t s


• Refutation
  
  
  • What Is Refutation?
  
  
  • Counterexamples
  
  
  • Reductio Ad Absurdum
  
  
  • Straw Men and False Dichotomies
  
  
  • Refutation by Parallel Reasoning
  
  
  
  


• Part V Areas of Argumentation


• Chapter


• Legal Reasoning
  
  
  • Components of Legal Reasoning
    
    
    • Questions of Fact
    
    
    • Questions of Law
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • The Law of Discrimination
    
    
    • The Equal Protection Clause
    
    
    • Applying the Equal Protection Clause
    
    
    • The Strict Scrutiny Test
    
    
    • The Bakke Case
    
    
    • Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
    
    
    • Legal Developments Since Bakke
    
    
    • Grutter v. Bollinger
    
    
    • Gratz v. Bollinger
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Burden of Proof
  
  
  
  


• Chapter


• Moral Reasoning
  
  
  • Moral Disagreements
  
  
  • The Problem of Abortion
    
    
    • The “Pro-Life” Argument
    
    
    • “Pro-Choice” Responses
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • Analogical Reasoning in Ethics
  
  
  • Weighing Factors
    
    
    • “Abortion,” by Mary Anne Warren
    
    
    • by Don Marquis “An Argument that Abortion Is Wrong,”