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Refutation
Chapter 1 showed how arguments can be used for justification and for explanation,
but arguments can also be used for another purpose: refutation. This chapter will
explain the nature of refutation and explore some of the main ways in which argu-
ments can refute another argument or claim. These methods of refutation include
counterexamples, reductio ad absurdum, and parallel reasoning. This last kind of
refutation can reveal a large variety of fallacies in addition to those studied in previ-
ous chapters.What Is Refutation?
In addition to justifying and explaining their conclusions, arguments are also
sometimes used to refute other arguments. To refute an argument is to show
that it is no good. Some writers, however, incorrectly use the term “refute” to
mean something much weaker. They say such things as that Bill Clinton re-
futed the charges brought against him (by those attempting to impeach him
while he was president), meaning nothing more than that he rejected or replied
to the charges. This, however, is not what the word “refute” means. To refute
the charges brought against him, Clinton would have to give reason to believe
that these charges were erroneous. Refuting a charge requires giving an ad-
equate argument against it. This takes a lot more work than simply denying it.
On the other hand, it is also important to remember that we can refute an
argument without proving that its conclusion is false. A refutation of an argu-
ment is sufficient if it raises objections that cannot be answered. Consequently,
the patterns of successful refutations mirror the criteria for a good argument,
because the point of a refutation is to show that one of these criteria has
not been met. Refutations, then, take four main forms: (1) We can argue that
some of the premises are dubious or even false. (2) We can argue that the
conclusion of the argument leads to absurd results. (3) We can show that
the conclusion does not follow from the premises (or, in the case of an inductive
argument, that the premises do not provide strong enough support for the
conclusion). (4) We can show that the argument begs the question. This last
charge was discussed in Chapter 16, so here we will focus on the first three
methods of refutation.97364_ch17_ptg01_333-350.indd 333 15/11/13 11:12 AM
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