The Language of Argument

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C H A P T E R 1 7 ■ R e f u t a t i o n

Spell out a reductio ad absurdum argument to refute each of the following

claims. If no such reductio is possible, explain why.

1. Some sisters are nephews.


2. Some fathers were never children.


3. Most students scored better than the median grade on the last test.


4. Almost everyone in this class is exceptional.


5. There is an exception to every universal claim.


6. I know that I do not know anything.


7. Some morally wrong actions are morally permitted.


8. God exists outside of time, and we will meet Him someday.


9. There is a male barber in this town who shaves all and only the men in
   this town who do not shave themselves. (Hint: Does he shave himself?)


10. Most of the sentences in this exercise are true.

Exercise IV

1. The legal case of Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), questioned the
   constitutionality of a law requiring racial segregation in railroad cars.
   Opponents of the law gave the following reductio argument. How could
   defenders of segregation respond to this argument? Is their response ad-
   equate? Is any response adequate? Why or why not?
   The same argument that will justify the state legislature in requiring railways to pro-
   vide separate accommodations for the two races will also authorize them to require
   separate cars to be provided for people whose hair is of a certain color, or who are
   aliens, or who belong to certain nationalities, or to enact laws requiring colored peo-
   ple to walk upon one side of the street, and white people upon the other, or requiring
   white men’s houses to be painted white, and colored men’s black, or their vehicles
   or business signs to be of different colors, upon the theory that one side of the street
   is as good as the other, or that a house or vehicle of one color is as good as one of
   another color.


2. Many atheists try to refute belief in God with the following reductio ad
   absurdum argument: God is defined to be all-good and all-powerful (as
   well as all-knowing). If God is all-good, then God prevents as much evil
   as He can. If God is all-powerful (and all-knowing), then God can prevent
   all evil. Thus, if a traditional God did exist, there would be no evil in the
   world. But that’s absurd. There is obviously lots of evil in the world. There-
   fore, God does not exist. Evaluate this reductio argument. How could reli-
   gious believers best respond?

Discussion Questions

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