The Language of Argument

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C H A P T E R 1 9 ■ M o r a l R e a s o n i n g

this exception is controversial. We will return to this issue later. But even if

exceptions are made both for life-threatening pregnancies and for pregnan-

cies due to rape and incest, the range of morally permissible abortions will

still be very small.

Pro-choice liberals can, however, argue for a wider range of morally

permissible abortions by extending the self-defense exception. It can be

argued that a woman has a right to defend not only her life but also her

physical and psychological well-being. Liberals can also argue that the

exception of rape shows that abortion is allowed when the woman is not

responsible for her pregnancy, and this might include cases in which the

woman tried to prevent pregnancy by using contraceptives. Granting excep-

tions of this kind does not provide the basis for an absolute right to an abor-

tion, but it does move things away from a “pro-life” position in the direction

of a “pro-choice” position.

th e st a t u s o F t h e Fe t u s. So far we have assumed for the sake of

argument that a human fetus is a human being. But pro-choice liberals often

deny this premise. It may seem hard to deny that a human fetus is human.

After all, it is not an aardvark. Liberals, however, claim that the real issue is

not about biological species. The real issue is whether a human fetus is cov-

ered by the moral principle against killing, and whether it is protected to the

same extent as an adult human. Anything that is protected to this extent is

said to have a “right to life” and will be called a “person.” The issue, then, is

whether a human fetus is a person. If a fetus is a person, the burden of proof

is on those who defend abortion to show why the moral principle against

killing should be set aside or modified. If a fetus is not a person, this moral

principle cannot show that there is anything wrong with abortion for any

reason—with what is called “abortion on demand.”

Any argument that a fetus either is a person or is not a person must

proceed from some idea of which properties make something a person—

which properties warrant the protection of moral principles. To argue that

a fetus is not a person, pro-choice liberals need to find some feature that

fetuses lack and that is necessary for personhood. In response, pro-life con-

servatives need to find some feature that fetuses have and that is sufficient

for personhood.

Many conditions of personhood have been suggested. This list is not

complete:

Genetic code (which determines biological species)

Ensoulment (when a soul enters the body)

Brain activity (first detected around eight weeks)

Sentience (capacity to feel pain and pleasure)

Viability (when the fetus can survive outside the womb)

Rationality (and other related capacities)

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