III Motives, Intentions and Consequences
On what basis, if any, can we make qualitative assessments of acts of rescue, in a
manner that can honour the meaning of rescue for both rescued and rescuer? Yad
Vashem accords the title of “Righteous among the Nations” according to both the
acts themselves and the motives behind them.^38 The question of motive is of course
a key touchstone in contemporary debates on humanitarianism. For many, the
absence of a motive entirely consistent with the act of rescue calls into question the
validity of that act, whatever the outcome. In fact, three distinct variables are worth
considering here: motives, intentions and consequences. For Terry Nardin, an
“agent’s intention is what he chooses to do; his motive is the dispositions and
desires that explain his choice”.^39 Motive relates to our reason for action, intention
to how we plan to act. Nardin also notes that motive and intention are often used
interchangeably, a problem we will encounter below. When it comes to the carrying
out of the act itself, another element comes into play: the means of rescue, which
have the potential, for some, to invalidate any or all of those three potential
criteria, if deployed inappropriately. This question will be examined in the next
section. For now, we will concentrate on the interplay between motives, intentions
and consequences, arguing that, for different reasons, all are important, but that
they function at different levels of the humanitarian endeavour.
In a provocative recent essay Stephen Hopgood makes a compelling
argument that, if the core justification of the practice of humanitarianism is to save
38
Monroe, The Hand of Compassion , 287. One of the criteria is that the act not be
motivated by desire for money, which presents interesting links to professional
humanitarians’ mistrust of money, explored below. 39
Terry Nardin, "Introduction", in Humanitarian Intervention, NOMOS XLVII , ed. Terry
Nardin and Melissa S. Williams (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 10. A debate
between Fernando Tesón and Terry Nardin in the aftermath of the invasion of Iraq usefully
fleshes out these issues. Terry Nardin, "Humanitarian Imperialism", Ethics and International
Affairs 19, no. 2 (2005). Fernando R. Tesón, "Ending Tyranny in Iraq", Ethics and
International Affairs 19, no. 2 (2005). Fernando R. Tesón, "Of Tyrants and Empires", Ethics
and International Affairs 19, no. 2 (2005). For a summary of debates on motives and
intentions in the context of humanitarian intervention, see Lang, "Humanitarian
Intervention", 138-141. For a recent treatment of these issues, see James Pattison,
Humanitarian Intervention and the Responsibility to Protect: Who Should Intervene?
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 153-180.