situation, their personality, their family life cycle stage and their lifestyle in
general will affect the pattern of their consumption decisions. These factors
are commonly used as criteria to segment consumer markets and will be
explored in greater detail in section Consumer behaviour of this chapter.Psychological influences
Four key psychological factors: those of motivation, perception, learning,
beliefs and attitudes are further influences on consumer behaviour.
● Motivation: Individuals have a range of needs from basic biological
needs such as the need to satisfy hunger, thirst and physical distress to
psychological needs like the need for social recognition, esteem or
belonging. These needs may lie dormant at any particular time but
once aroused to a high enough level of intensity they become a motiv-
ational force. A motive is a need that has reached a level that drives an
individual to search for ways to alleviate its demands. There is a whole
body of theory in this area that cannot be explored in this text (see fur-
ther reading at the end of this chapter), however summarising two of
the most influential theories is worthwhile to illustrate their influence
on marketing practice:- Freud’s theory of motivation: Freud proposed that individuals are motiv-
ated by unconscious psychological factors. Moreover as an individ-
ual grows up they conform to social norms which requires them to
repress a range of desires and passions (urges). This theory would
suggest that an individual’s consciously stated reason for buying a
product may hide a more fundamental unconscious motive. An indi-
vidual proposing to purchase an executive car may claim that this
decision is based on the need for quality and reliability, whereas the
unconscious desire may be for status. - Maslow’s theory of motivation: Maslow claimed that individuals have a
hierarchy of needs. At the lowest level individuals are driven by basic
physiological needs. When individuals are able to satisfy the needs at
one level they will be motivated by the needs at the next level in the
hierarchy (see Figure 4.3). The implication of the theory for marketers
is that individuals will seek different products and services as they
move up this hierarchy.
This theory is not universal and is biased towards Anglo-Saxon cultural
values, in particular individualism and need for self-development. These
needs would not have the same prominence in Japan or Germany were
the need for personal security and conformity take a higher priority.
Motivation theories relate to consumer needs and satisfying con-
sumer’s needs is a central tenant of marketing. These motivation theories
therefore have influenced approaches to market segmentation. It should
be noted that although Freud and Maslow’s theories have been very influ-
ential in management and marketing theory and practice, they have been
challenged on the grounds that the research evidence to support their util-
ity as a psychological theory of motivation is weak (Steers et al., 1996).
54 Strategic Marketing: Planning and Control