The BalkansThis entry describes the participation of Muslim
women in two different protest movements, each of
which, in its own way, affects the social and politi-
cal behavior of women in the Balkans. The entry
focuses primarily on Bosnia-Herzegovina but in-
cludes, in a broader context, Serbia, Montenegro,
Macedonia, and Kosovo. The first protest move-
ment is the controversy surrounding the unveiling
of women – the removal of the zarand fered∆a, as
the traditional women’s costume in the region is
called. The second, more recent, is the public
protest by the women of Srebrenica who are calling
for the truth about their menfolk who have been
missing since the mass murders at the United
Nations safe area of Srebrenica in 1995. The
removal of the zar and fered∆aencourages Muslim
women to participate in public and economic life.
The protest of the women of Srebrenica is indica-
tive of changes in the way Muslim women react to
the problems they face and the way these problems
are articulated in public. This is all the more signif-
icant since it is happening among poorly educated
rural women brought up in the traditional manner.
Unveiling
The unveiling of Muslim women in the Balkans
was a long and contentious process, the early signs
of which were to be seen when the issue of the
emancipation of Muslim women was first raised.
At various times, different groups were involved:
male Muslim intellectuals, men and women associ-
ated with the Communist Party and its agenda, and
members of the legislature, who concluded the mat-
ter by passing a law banning the wearing of the zar
and fered∆a. The process that had begun with the
debates of 1878 ended with the enactment of the
law in September 1950. It was accompanied by
public polemics, propaganda, and actions in support
of the unveiling of women, but also by resistance by
both women and men – traumatic experiences that
left their mark in the memories of women and in
unrecounted history.
The first stage of this dynamic process extended
from 1878 to 1918, and was characterized for
Muslims by the encounter with different cultural
and civilizational values and with capitalism at the
start of Austro-Hungarian rule. Changes to their
Political-Social Movements: Protest Movements
way of life put the spotlight on the position of
Muslim women. The traditional way of life, the
view of gender roles, and the understanding of reli-
gion prevented Muslim women from taking an
active part in the new social and economic trends.
Arguments over the status of women, the education
of Muslim women, their manner of dressing, and
the response to new challenges were largely con-
ducted by men, Muslim intellectuals whose views
met with condemnation from conservative circles.
The second stage lasted from 1918 to 1941. With
the end of the First World War, the debate over the
status of Muslim women took on a sharper edge.
The open confrontation of two opposing views
continued: one advocating the unveiling of women,
education for girls and women, and women’s
involvement in public and social life, and the other
rooted in traditional, conservative views of the sta-
tus of Muslim women which kept them home- and
tradition-bound. The debate was accompanied by
the publication of works interpreting Islamic teach-
ings as posing no obstacle to the education of
women and their participation in public life, and
calling for the emancipation of Muslim women in
line with the demands of modern life. This stand-
point was upheld by Rà±is al-≠Ulamౄau“eviƒ,
whose understanding was that religious precepts
were not contrary to the unveiling of women and
who was openly of the opinion that Muslim women
could be seen in the streets with their faces unveiled.
Typically, at that time the issue was reduced to the
veiling or unveiling of women and public debate
between men.
In the final stage, 1941 to 1950, women began
taking an active part in the process, which was now
conducted within the ideological matrix of commu-
nism and the equality of the sexes in the process of
class liberation and equality of rights. The activities
of Muslim women cannot be considered in isola-
tion from the women’s movement as a whole in
Bosnia-Herzegovina and Yugoslavia at the time.
Women were actively engaged in every aspect of the
war of national liberation, and were also active in
urging Muslim women to become involved in
changing their own position by attending literacy
classes and forming various associations and
groups. Organized action to unveil women began in
1947 and used propaganda involving both women
and men. This propaganda presented the zarand