daily dilemmas related to gender issues are discussed,
followed by closing prayers (Andezian 2001). The
second association is more structured, with the
leader in charge of scheduling the rituals and
admitting new members. The dhikr-like ritual is
held in holy figures’ tombs or private homes at the
request of those needing assistance with infertility,
illness, and other afflictions. After guiding the par-
ticipants in multiple repetitions of Arabic phrases
praising Allah, the leader gives a lesson on religious
matters and leads the chanting of poetic verses,
which may vary according to the context. Rhyth-
mic movements to induce trance may accompany
the chanting. The ritual includes the sacrifice of an
animal provided by the afflicted. The members are
usually older, and widowed or divorced and view
their participation as an expression of piety in
preparation for Judgment Day (Jansen 1987).
Based on unpublished fieldwork data, two types
of associations holding rituals resembling the dhikr
exist among Berber women in the Souss region of
southwestern Morocco today. The first association
is located in the village of Agard Udad near Tafraout
in the Anti-Atlas Mountains. The association meets
daily between the afternoon and sunset prayers in a
meeting room in a centuries-old mosque on an em-
bankment which overlooks the village. The mosque
also contains a kitchen where the women prepare
ritual meals when a villager donates an animal for
sacrifice to acquire special blessing. Membership is
based on attendance and open to all women. Many
of the regular participants are advanced in age. The
women chant multiple repetitions of a series of
Arabic phrases as well as long age-old Berber poems
praising Allah, with intermittent Arabic and Berber
prayers. Halfway through the ritual, the women
pause to drink traditional Moroccan sweet green
tea with mint. The ritual content is unique to this
location. The association leader, an older woman,
introduces the chants, prayers, and poems. Besides
the entire ritual, she, like the older participants, pre-
serves in her memory the legendary history of the
mosque in rhymed Berber prose. Former leaders
also instructed the women in religious matters on
separate occasions (Qasim 1991).
The second type of association can be found in
variant forms throughout the Souss region of
southwestern Morocco. Three associations exist in
the Atlantic coastal town of Tiznit and two in
Bounaaman, a village in the foothills ten kilometers
due south of Tiznit. In Tiznit, the ritual gatherings
are held in the tomb complexes of holy figures. In
Bounaaman, they take place in a tomb complex and
a private home. In all five locations, the ritual con-
sists primarily of Berber couplets chanted multiple712 religious associations
times, sometimes accompanied by drumming or
clapping, and intermittent Arabic prayers. In
Tiznit, the women occasionally chant long age-old
Berber poems as a group or with one woman chant-
ing the poem and the others the refrain. The cou-
plets and poems express veneration of and longing
for the Prophet and call on local holy figures to
intercede in times of need. All five associations are
loosely structured with membership based on open
ritual attendance. The participants vary in age, but
the majority in Tiznit are older, whereas middle-
aged women are common among participants in
Bounaaman. Unlike those in Tiznit, the associa-
tions in Bounaaman have no officially designated
leaders. The leaders in Tiznit give sermon/lessons
periodically throughout the ritual on religious top-
ics. One association leader prefers to speak about
pertinent daily life issues such as local girls’ chang-
ing dress styles, growing materialism, and abortion.
Lively discussions ensue. The rituals occur between
the afternoon and sunset prayers, daily or weekly.
Midway through the ritual, sweet green tea with
mint and bread, purchased with participants’ dona-
tions, are served. Local inhabitants occasionally
bring a meal for the women to share to ensure the
salvation of a family member who has died.Bibliography
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