milieus – will most probably remain a long-lived
cause for organized efforts.
Although it is obvious that Muslim women are
still far behind Muslim men in organizational activ-
ities, numerous small-scale activities are carried out
by almost anonymous Muslim women’s groups.
These groups are still based on segregation and tra-
ditional values, and most emphasize ritual and
moral obligations. However, as traditional mosques
in the countries of origin often had no place for
women, their present inclusion in most mosques
can be seen as an accommodation to changing
circumstances.
As members of male-dominated religious associ-
ations, women are definitely not as active as male
members; they often remain restricted to specifi-
cally female issues, with limited influence on deci-
sion making, and with no, or very limited, place in
the leadership.
Until now, the most vital and original contribu-
tions to women’s organizational life are the new
European associations based on gender cooperation
(such as Présence musulmane) and the autonomous
female associations. Together with informal groups
and networks, they represent organizational train-
ing fields for women; they attract members and
followers from different ethnic and linguistic back-
grounds, thus counteracting the present fragmenta-
tion and lack of cooperation present in local
Muslim mosque communities. Such associations,
even if few in number, can be seen as another sign
of how political, social, and cultural priorities,
both of the Muslim community and probably also
of their European interlocutors, are beginning to
produce new types of Muslim organization. The
founding members of women’s groups and associa-
tions are not blind to shortcomings of male-biased
mosque leadership or male-dominated associa-
tions; until now, however, such criticisms have been
articulated in guarded terms. In general, women’s
associations are more centered on social issues than
on ideology.
western europe 719Increasing literacy as well as economic independ-
ence have given at least some women more auton-
omy and greater courage to affirm their rights, to
take responsibility and to encourage female leader-
ship. Consequently, women are gradually becom-
ing more active in associations based on gender
cooperation and as participants in debates con-
cerning what kind of visible roles they are to play in
the community’s organizational life. Several trends
are thus at work, but the fact remains that women
are still playing a secondary role in the organiza-
tional development of the European Muslim com-
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