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Journal of International Affairs54:1 (2000), 21–42.Burçak Keskin-KozatWestern EuropeThe Western notion of secularism in the context
of law means the withdrawal or dismissal of prop-
erties, people, or things from the churches’ ob-
servance or power (Lübbe 1965, 23). In a more
general sense secularism refers to theories of mod-
ernization which assumed, up until the late 1970s,
that religion had lost its relevance and meaning in
society. Today sociologists of religion describe sec-
ularism as a typical development in modern times
that only aims at changing the shape of religion in
modern societies (Casanova 1996). This is shown,
for instance, by the differentiation of subsystems in
society, which also means the separation of religion
and state, and the individualization of religion.
Secularism is analyzed by stripping off religious
meanings in regard to religious symbols, practices,
and ideas while keeping it a profane tradition or
social structure (Weber 1920).
The Western historical and sociological con-
cepts of secularism are not entirely transferable to
Islam. Nevertheless in the context of immigration
to Europe and the confrontation with Western
Christian secularism, they are helpful heuristic par-
adigms for the understanding of some of the devel-
opments of Islam in Western Europe.732 secularism
Secularism as differentiation
of religion and state
Muslims in Western Europe have not yet shaped
a church-like organization. The special circum-
stances they must acknowledge in their new sit-
uation, however, involve particular methods of
accommodation. Since second generation immi-
grants are more oriented to Europe, they have built
mosque associations in a more Western style. These
mosque associations still substitute the missing cul-
tural institutions of their homelands. Thus in many
cases the mosque is used, for example, to celebrate
religious ceremonies that would not take place in or
around the mosque in most parts of the Muslim
world, in particular weddings, rites of circumci-
sion, or funeral ceremonies (Shadid and Konings-
veld 1995, 25). Customs that in another context
were seen to be located between the realm of reli-
gion and culture are now defined as religiously
bounded. The imam, who traditionally had only
the function of prayer leader, has various “reli-
gious” tasks in Europe and consequently has
become a more religious authority. Mosque associ-
ations also offer cultural and social activities and
courses along with religious services. A differentia-
tion is made between members and non-members
of mosques, again differing from what pertains in
most of the Muslim world. The pluralistic situation
in which Muslims find themselves sets many of
them in a more distant and perhaps more service-
oriented relation to the mosque (Shadid and
Koningsveld 1995).
At the same time, a female second generation has
moved into the mosques and aspired to participate,
since the mosques are the only public places in
which, for most Muslims, it is socially acceptable
for women to be present. Even though the boards of
directors of the mosque associations have mostly
been filled by men, women continue to gain more
influence in the mosques. Today no mosques are
built without rooms for female believers. The
women provide religious and non-religious activi-
ties, including instructional courses, in these rooms.
Women have also formed their own associations in
the fields of consulting and education (for example,
Klinkhammer 2000, Jonker 2001). This autono-
mous empowerment of Muslim women, which is
observable in all Western European countries, is
supported by some associations. One of the larger
German associations has established a permanent
women’s representative. In France, Belgium, and
other countries the state representatives demand
the participation of women when they begin to
negotiate on their behalf.