(1993) of Istanbul who first came to the United
States in 1980. Branches of this †arìqadeveloped in
New York under the leadership of Tosun Bayrak
and Shaykh Nùr (Lex Hixon), and in the San
Francisco Bay Area under Ragip (Robert) Frager.
After the death of Shaykh Muzaffer, the American
order branched into two movements. Ultimately
one branch of the American Jerrà™ìs, known as the
Ashkijerrà™ìs, drawn mainly from Lex Hixon’s fol-
lowers, evolved separately, under a female teacher,
Shaykha Farì™a Fà†ima al-Jerrà™ì. The biographi-
cal notice of Shaykha Farì™a notes that she was
made a female leader or shaykha by Muzaffer Ozak
in 1985 and is the first female leader in the Jerrà™ì
order in over 300 years. The leader of this move-
ment in Mexico is also a woman.
In the case of the Turkish Mevlevìorder (often
referred to as whirling dervishes), American initi-
ates may learn the traditional practice of “turn-
ing.” Among these disciples are American women
who are set on breaking the barrier to female par-
ticipation in the dhikr (form of Sufi meditation).
Traditional shaykhs from Turkey may be pleased
that Americans are becoming dervishes, but are
unsettled to be asked to give permission for females
to whirl, at least publicly. In another branch of the
American Mevlevìmovement, Camille Helminski
joins her husband, Kabìr, in writing and teaching
activities.
Among the challenges to traditional norms that
have been raised by converted American Sufi
women is activism. In the same way that third wave
or cultural feminists try to avoid the past mistakes
of white middle-class feminists in attempting to
impose their agenda on women of color, female
participants in Western Sufi movements feel the
need to negotiate their understandings of gender
roles so as to reflect both traditional authenticity
and justice.
Webb’s edited volume (2000) on Muslim women’s
activism in America includes articles by two women
associated with Sufi movements. These women
exemplify the active roles played by many Sufi
women in American Muslim life today. Rabia Terri
Harris is a member of the Halvetì-Jerrà™ìSufi
order. Harris has university degrees in Middle
Eastern Languages and Cultures and has con-
tributed translations of Arabic texts by the classical
Sufi writer al-Qushayrì(d. 1072). She is involved in
peace and justice movements and lectures on pro-
gressive Islam.
Gwendolyn Zohara Simmons is a member of the
Sheikh Muhammad Raheem Bawa Muhaiyaddeen
Mosque and Fellowship in Philadelphia. Guru
Bawa Muhaiyaddeen (d. 1986), a Sufi teacher from
the united states 771Sri Lanka, settled in Philadelphia in 1972, and
attracted many American followers. The commu-
nity has evolved at present into two branches, one
more focused on Bawa as a spiritual teacher in
a non-denominational orientation and the other
more Islamic Sharì≠a-oriented. In her writings
Simmons, an African-American, directly confronts
the oppression of women in some Muslim contexts,
including among some American Muslim commu-
nities, in the light of her personal experiences in the
American Civil Rights movement. According to
Simmons, the Sufi master Guru Bawa taught that
women manifest the feminine qualities of Allah,
and gave special recognition to women’s participa-
tion and leadership.
The directness of some female Sufis is sometimes
seen by male Sufi leaders as rebelling against con-
ventional gender expectations. In an incident at an
International Association of Sufism Conference in
the San Francisco Bay Area in 1994, a Rifà±ìSufi
shaykh from Kuwait was leading a collective dhikr,
in which a succession of universal and Sharì≠a-ori-
ented teachers took turns directing the audience
in Islamic chants. The shaykh commented that
since some female participants were not covering
their hair during the practices, the angels could not
be present at the gathering. Some American Sufi
women were outraged at this comment and pro-
tested by walking out, in a few cases provocatively
tossing their heads to flaunt their cascading tresses
in defiance.
In summary, it is clear that female members of
Western Sufi movements take positions about gen-
der along some sort of continuum from subversion
and activism directed to challenging and reforming
traditional Muslim practices to acceptance of the
rationale for “gender complementarity.”
In fact, the concept that maleness and femaleness
function as distinct energies is expressed not only
by Sharì≠a-oriented movements, but also in certain
teachings of universalist groups such as the Islamia
Ruhaniat International. Members of these groups
cultivate specific movements, dances, or practices
as part of “attuning” to essentially different gender
frequencies.
Several Shì≠ìSufi orders are present in the United
States. Dr. Nahid Angha, daughter of the Sufi teacher
Shàh Maghsoud (d. 1980), whose shrine is located
in Novato, California, is the leader of the Inter-
national Association of Sufism. In her movement a
woman friendly approach is taken. Initiatives of this
group include trying to foster cooperation and com-
munication across all Sufi movements. In addition,
in 1993 they established a global networking move-
ment for female Sufis, the Sufi Women Organization.