GHG EMISSIONS, URBAN MOBILITY, AND MORPHOLOGY ■ 119prove more cost eff ective than underground metro for conveying commut-
ers toward areas with high job concentrations)- Charging relatively high prices for the use of cars in downtown areas, imple-
mented through congestion pricing in Singapore, tolls to enter Manhattan
from bridges and tunnels, and allowing parking prices to be set by the mar-
ket in New York City and Singapore - Ensuring a high level of amenities that make the downtown area attractive
outside offi ce hours, such as theater districts, museums, and the new Chel-
sea art gallery district in New York City, and cultural centers, auditoriums,
rehabilitation of ethnic districts and waterfront with restaurants, leisure and
entertainment, commerce, seaside promenade, pedestrian streets, and so on
in Singapore - As in Singapore, promoting large-scale but compact mixed-use develop-
ment located at integrated bus-transit transport hubs such as Ang Mo Kio
and Woodlands, new towns where shopping centers, amenities, offi ces, and
civic functions in the bus/metro hub allow linked trips while using transit
Conclusions
Diff erential pricing of energy sources based on carbon content is oft en pos-
ited as the only way to promote better urban transport effi ciency and to reduce
GHG emissions due to urban transport in the long run for most cities. As dem-
onstrated in this chapter, integrating transport and land-use planning, invest-
ing in public transport, improving pedestrian environment and links, and
dynamically managing parking provision and traffi c management are equally
important for improving the eff ectiveness of the transport network serving the
city. GHG emissions arising from suburb-to-suburb trips will be reduced not
only through energy carbon pricing but also from better traffi c management to
reduce congestion and improvements in car technology.
GHG emissions in many dense and still monocentric cities could be reduced
if the demand for suburbs to CBD trips increased. Th is would require coordi-
nating carefully land use and transit networks. Large increases in the FAR in
CBDs could trigger a transport mode shift toward transit if coordinated with
new BRT networks and parking pricing policy.
An increase in the job concentration in CBDs could also increase urban pro-
ductivity by increasing mobility without increasing VKmT or trip time. How-
ever, this does not mean that all economic activities should be concentrated
in the CBD. To the contrary, fl exibility in zoning should allow commerce and
small enterprise to grow in the best location to operate their business, as has
been the case in Singapore. Too oft en, zoning laws overestimate the negative