136 ■ CITIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE
transport has become an important sector for achieving GHG emissions reduc-
tions targets, although issues of adapting transport infrastructures to climate
change have yet to feature substantially on the urban policy agenda.
Th e mitigation strategies taken by cities that have reduced carbon emis-
sions include promoting the capacity and quality of public transport systems,
integrating transport and urban planning to facilitate effi cient and low-carbon
modes of transport, strengthening transport demand management, increas-
ing investment in cleaner or alternative fuel vehicle technologies, tightening
vehicle emissions and effi ciency standards, and encouraging nonmotorized
transport, such as biking and walking. Th e governance approaches adopted by
municipalities include forms of self-governance (such as staff travel planning,
vehicle fl eet fuel switching), regulation (such as emissions standards, planning
laws), provisioning (such as of public transport services or of infrastructures
for alternative modes of travel), enabling (such as information), and partner-
ships (such as public-private fi nancing for new modes of transportation).
Self-governance
One of the most common policies with respect to transportation has been for
municipalities to replace their vehicle fl eets with alternative fuels. Alternative
fuel vehicles are vehicles powered by substantially non–petroleum-based fuels,
including compressed natural gas (CNG), methanol, ethanol, propane, lique-
fi ed petroleum gas (LPG), biodiesel, and electricity. Th is approach has been
popular among our case studies, although it should be noted that although
these measures are oft en framed in terms of their potential impact in terms of
mitigating climate change, there is uncertainty about whether some alternative
fuels will in fact lead to a meaningful reduction in GHG emissions. Beijing
has about one-third (4,158) of 20,000 buses powered by CNG. Th ree fuel-cell
buses began operations in June 2006, and a hydrogen refueling station began
operating in November 2006 within the Beijing Hydro Demo Park. About 500
advanced alternative fuel vehicles were used by the Beijing Organizing Com-
mittee for the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games and Paralympics, including 20 fuel
cell cars, 50 lithium-ion battery-powered electric buses, 25 hybrid buses, and
75 hybrid cars (Zhao 2008). Th e hybrid vehicles and natural gas–powered vehi-
cles around the village all meet Euro IV emission standards and helped achieve
“zero emissions” in the central Olympic area. Th ese vehicles were developed
and supported by China’s national research and development program, for
which the Beijing Olympics was used as a testing ground.
In Seoul, the metropolitan government plans to replace government vehi-
cles with hybrids and to increase the number of CNG buses (SMG 2008; SMG
News 2008), and in Mexico City there is a plan to replace the entire city gov-
ernment car fl eet with low-emission vehicles. In Delhi, the government has