COMPARING MITIGATION POLICIES ■ 81
Covenant of Mayors already involves more than 2,200 municipalities and commits
them to adopt a sustainable energy action plan, with a target going beyond the
20 percent reduction of GHG emissions by 2020 (http://www.eumayors.eu/).
- See the defi nition of global cities in Sassen (2001).
- Several boundaries can be identifi ed within large cities: the core city, the contiguous
built-up area, the metropolitan area, and an extended planning region (Satterthwaite
2008).
- Th e defi nition has been adapted from Hakes (1999). Other classifi cations are pos-
sible (Dodman 2009).
- Th e European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme/European Environment
Agency (EEA) air pollutant emission inventory guidebook (CORINAIR) provides
guidance on estimating emissions from both anthropogenic and natural emission
sources. See the website of the EEA, http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/emep-
eea-emission-inventory-guidebook-2009.
- Although London, Mexico City, Milan, and New York City have lower emissions per
capita than their respective countries, Bangkok produces much higher emissions per
capita than the rest of Th ailand. Per capita emissions in 2002 were the following: 9.7
tons, Italy (UNFCCC 2003); 9.8 tons, Mexico; 3.2 tons, Th ailand; 4.2 tons, United
Kingdom; 20 tons, United States (UNEP/GRID 2005).
- Th e Kaya identity expresses global GHG emission levels as the product of the follow-
ing inputs: CO 2 emissions per capita = Carbon content of energy × Energy intensity
of economy × GDP per capita (Kaya 1990, in Nakicenovic and Swart 2000).
- Carbon intensity of electricity consumption shows the following values: Bangkok,
509 grams of CO 2 /KWh (BMA 2008); London (supplied from the National Grid),
520 grams of CO 2 /KWh; Mexico City, 683 grams of CO 2 /KWh (Pardo and Martínez
2006); Milan, 311 grams of CO 2 /KWh (IEFE 2009).
- Th is elderly-young ratio is the ratio of the number of inhabitants aged over 60 to the
number of inhabitants aged under 19. Th e activity rate is the percentage of the total
population aged from 15 to 65 years in the labor force.
- If we consider the estimate of Bangkok’s registered and unregistered population of
8.8 million inhabitants, the density of Bangkok would be 5,612 inhabitants/km^2 ,
similar to the other selected cities.
- A study by the Greater London Authority compares the environmental performance
of London with other regions of England that are on average 14 times less dense
than London. London turns out to be the region with the lowest domestic CO 2 emis-
sions per capita and the lowest CO 2 emissions per billion pounds gross value added,
whereas the transport sector has low CO 2 emissions per passenger bus and the highest
CO 2 emissions per vehicle kilometer traveled, mainly because of traffi c congestion
(GLA 2008b).
- New York’s plan does not include estimates on emission reductions that should
derive from each measure.
- Th e New York City plan foresees (1) facilitating repowering and construction of
cleaner power plants and dedicated transmission lines, (2) expanding Clean Distrib-
uted Generation connected to the city grid, (3) fostering the market for renewable
energy, and (4) supporting expansion of the city’s natural gas infrastructure (City of
New York 2007a).
