fMRI studies
Two papers report the use of real music in neuroimaging studies, Demorest and Morrison (NM I no.
8), and Janata (NM II no. 12). Together with the PET study by Blood & Zatorre (2001) earlier de-
scribed in this chapter p. 67, these studies demonstrate that it is possible to combine reliable experi-
mental control with the ecological validity of using real music.
Musical expression
Two papers report investigations of expressive intentions in live music recordings, De Poli (NM I no.
9), and Sloboda et al. (NM II no. 25). This type of investigation is important for the understanding
of music perception, the emotional impact of music, and the similarities and differences between
acoustic and artificial sounds.
Emotion and recognition
In studies by Bigand et al. (NM II no. 46, NM III no. 33) and Grewe et al. (NM II no. 49, NM III no.
51), the participants listen to live recordings in headphones. These studies yield remarkable results.
Bigand et al. demonstrate that emotional response and recognition of complex music occurs within
250 milliseconds. Grewe et al. have investigated the strong emotional responses to music. Their
results indicate a strong relationship between subjective feelings, heart rate, and skin conductance
response.
Even if these studies of recorded real music are few in number, they set a standard for ecological
validity, that is, the relevance for music listening in a real-life situation.
Cultural references
The surveys in appendix 3.07 indicate cultural references in the papers of the conferences 2002,
2005, and 2008. These surveys permit an overview of the cultural orientation of the neurosciences
and music. The tables in appendices 3.01, 3.02, and 3.02 provide more detailed information con-
cerning the contents of papers. The tables indicate for each study its aim, musical material, cultural
reference, technology and procedure, main focus of interest, and conclusion.
In 76 out of 193 papers, the cultural orientation is neutral or not particularly prominent, e.g. in studies
of pitch perception. Out of the remaining 117 studies, 97 papers focus on Western major-minor to-
nality, in particular classical music and the scales, rhythms, and harmonies of classical music. Three
studies include Western non-tonal music, and 11 papers include music from more than one culture.
19 papers deal with Western popular music, and four with Western traditional music.
Western major-minor tonality
Major-minor music is the mainstream in studies of neuroscience and music, prominent in 97 out of
117 studies that imply a cultural reference. It is debatable whether the results of studies of major-mi-
nor tonal music can be considered valid for other kinds of music.
Four large fields of music are sparsely represented or absent in neuroscientific studies; West-
ern popular music, Western art music of the 20th and 21st centuries, improvised music, and the mu-
sic of non-Western cultures.
Inclusion of Western popular music
In spite of its ubiquity, Western popular music is not often in the focus of neuroscience, and very