brain regions involved in reward, emotion, and arousal. These findings were confirmed and refined a
subsequent study by Salimpoor, Zatorre et al. (2011).^4
Studies by Guhn et al. (2007:473) and Grewe et al. (2009:61) indicated that heart rate and skin
conductance increased during music-induced chills.
All researchers agree that chill experiences are highly individual. However, musical passages
that are apt to evoke chills display common characteristics. In a review of studies, Huron and Mar-
gulis (2010:594) summarize that chills are often correlated with a rapid large change of loudness, a
broadening of the frequency range toward high treble or low bass, a sudden change of tempo, har-
mony or texture, the return of a melody, or the entry of one or more voices or instruments.
Bernardi et al. (2006:445-452) have investigated the bodily impact of raga, classical and dode-
caphonic music, rap and techno. They found increase in respiration, blood pressure, and heart rate,
and conclude that the music induced an arousal effect, predominantly related to tempo. A subse-
quent study by Bernardi et al. (2009:3171-3180) showed that the experience of crescendos in clas-
sical music by Puccini, Beethoven, and Verdi was significantly correlated with changes in heart rate,
blood flow, and respiration.
Figure 7.1 Serotonin and other neurotransmittersSeveral raphe nuclei are located in the brain stem. They produce the neurotransmitter serotonin. The
figure shows fibers that distribute serotonin to the frontal lobe, the striatum, the thalamus, the amyg-
dala, the hippocampus, the cerebellum and the spinal cord.
The raphe nuclei also send fibers to the locus coeruleus, which produces norepinephrine, to the hy-
pothalamus, which produces histamine, and the septal nuclei, which produce acetylcholine. Fibers
from the raphe nuclei also project to the periaqueductal gray (PAG) , which plays a role in regulation
of pain and defensive behavior.
(Brodal 2010:377)
4 Cf. chapter six.