micro-deviations in the timing, dynamics, and timbre in order to vary the expressiveness of the per-
formance.
In two experiments, the researchers asked a group of musicians and a group of non-musicians
to describe the music performance by indicating values in graduated scales of adjectives.^7 Math-
ematical factor analyses of the responses in both experiments indicate that two factors are funda-
mental for describing a musician’s expressiveness: a kinematics factor corresponding to tempo and
tempo variations, and an energy factor corresponding to intensity and attack time (p. 120). On the
basis of these factors, the authors have developed mathematical models for adding expressiveness
to synthesized music. They have published detailed reports of their investigations (Canazza, De Poli
et al. 2001, 2004).
3.1.2. Critical comments stated at the conference NM I
Introductions by prominent researchers preceded each conference section. Several of these intro-
ductions included critical comments on current scientific approaches.
Technical limitations
Giuliano Avanzini (NM I, pp. 1-3) pointed out (1) that the technique of averaging many EEG mea-
surements significantly limits the information contained in the recorded response; (2) that individual
anatomical variations in brain areas need to be taken into account in brain imaging studies by means
of PET and fMRI.
Ecological validity
Carol Krumhansl (NM I, pp. 103-105) emphasized the need to employ experimental materials as
close to real music as possible, in order to achieve ecological validity of the experiment. She also
recommended the inclusion of materials outside the tradition of Western tonal music.
Cultural bias
Ian Cross (NM I, pp. 106-111) voiced his critical view of neuroscience. He considers the notion of ex-
ploring music by examining the neurophysiological correlates of the acoustic signal severely culture
specific, permitting only a partial understanding of the neurophysiology of music. He states that the
narrow focus on the individual listening experience is predominant only in Western cultural contexts.
He also emphasizes that music is a characteristic of communities, involving entrainment of action
and interaction.
Cross points out that in some types of music, hand and finger movements can be more im-
portant than abstract principles of pitch patterns and harmony. This is the case in African kalimba
music, and in blues guitar music. Moreover, the Western preference for euphonious harmonies and
timbres is not a universal characteristic of music. An alternative example is the music of Northern
Potosi in Bolivia, characterized by a marked preference for severely inharmonic timbres. Cross rec-
ommends an ongoing dialogue between cognitive neuroscientists, musicians, musicologists, and
ethnomusicologists.
Biologically relevant sounds
Diego Minciacchi (NM I, pp. 215-217) reported the thought-provoking conclusion by E.G. Jones that
analyses of simple sound parameters are of limited use, and ought to be replaced by investigations
7 Adjectives in experiment 1: bright, dark, hard, soft, heavy, light. Adjectives in experiment 2: black, oppressive, serious,
dismal, massive, rigid, mellow, tender, sweet, airy, gentle, effervescent, vaporous, fresh, abrupt, sharp.